Peple's Party and became Ataturk's organ of control and propaganda. The most serious opposition at this time was from organised religion. In 1924 both the Caliphate and the Ministry of Sheriat (Islamic Law) and Evkaf (Pious Foundations) were abolished, and schools and law courts secularised. In the following year, the Kurds revolted under a Nakshibendi sheikh. The revolt was suppressed, but Ataturk took the opportunity to increase his hold over the state machinery. All dervish orders, which were widespread in Turkey, were made illegal, and their premises closed. To make clear to the people what he intended, Ataturk next decreed the abolition of the fez, currently the symbol of Muslim superiority over the infidel, and its replacement by infidel hats, henceforth to be the symbol of Turkey's identification with Western civilisation. This measure was imposed with firmness - in a few cases even ruthlessly. In 1926 the Ottoman codification of Islamic law, which was still in force for all personal matters, was replaced by a slightly amended translation of the Swiss Civil Code. At the same time the French-based Ottoman codes of commercial and penal law were also replaced by composite codes based mainly on German and Italian models. In 1928 the sacred Arabic alphabet was made illegal and replaced by a Latin script, which is in fact better adapted to the needs of the Turkish language. In the same year Islam ceased to be the established religion of Turkey. Nominally, in five years, the country had adopted an entirely new constitution, within a new set of frontiers; crushed the power of the vested interests in the established religion; separated Islam from the state; changed completely the system of law, and introduced a new way of writing.
Obviously, the implementation of the new institutions, which at first existed, not in people's behaviour, but merely on paper, was not a matter of overnight transformation, but of years of learning and adaptation. The process is still going on. But these were no passing gestures of transitory enthusiasts; the work that was done has remained.
The early reforms were socially fundamental, more so than anything that has followed. But westernising activities did not stop with the introduction of the new alphabet and legislation; they have continued up to date and are likely to persist. In order to explain what had happened, and to spread knowledge