Information for teachers

Advice for teachers (Acrobat Reader file) You can find another version of this file in the folder manual_pdf on the top level of this CD

Information for teachers

How to Use the ERA Resources

The site is broken up into individual projects, and each of these pro-
jects has a different navigation system. However, there are some basic
guidelines which will help you to use the projects to their best effect.

Each project has a main entry screen. In some, this screen itself has a
series of links to the individual elements of the project. In others, you
will have to access the main navigation or contents pages by clicking a
link on the main page.

Once you have accessed the main navigation section, you can follow
the instructions there. In projects which have a series of themes, such
as 'Peasant Social Worlds', there is also a contents page which contains
a listing of all the pages in the project. This is useful if you are
researching something specific, rather than attempting to learn as much
as possible about the project.

Within most of the pages there are embedded hypertext links which can
be used to access other relevant parts of the project, for example the
glossary, in-depth explanations of a particular item, etc. One way of
using these is to read the whole page first, then go back and access any
links. This way, you will not lose yourself in the site. If you do find
yourself lost, you can either use the 'back' button on your browser or
the navigation bars or buttons to take you back to the main page of the
section you were in.

You can return to the main ERA site at any time, by clicking on the bar
at the bottom of your screen which says 'Return to main ERA page'.
This will take you back to the entry screen, where you can select
another project, find out more about ERA itself or even get some tips
on creating your own anthropology site.

Element 1

Pitt Rivers: anthropology and

ethnography in the nineteenth

century, the history of museums,

field collection and the

iconography of shields

Introduction:
This element presents material (on a diverse number of anthropological
themes) relating to the person and ethnographic collections of
Lieutenant-General Pitt Rivers. It begins with an examination of the
intellectual climate of nineteenth century anthropology (which was to
have a profound effect on Pitt Rivers’ developing interest in the collec-
tion of objects of material culture) before moving on to look at part of
his collection in detail. In this regard, the element focuses on the 38
shields (drawn from Australia, Africa, India, Malaku [the Moluccas]
and the Solomon Islands) that Pitt Rivers included in his 1874 cata-
logue of his Bethnal Green Museum displays, artifacts which are now
to be found in the Pitt Rivers Museum at Oxford. After exploring some
of the epistemological issues surrounding the collection of such arti-
facts, the element turns to an examination of the history of their dis-
play. In addition to being given a history of how the artifacts have been
(alternatively) displayed at both of the above museums (among others),
users are here also introduced to the epistemology of museum represen-
tation, with the section including Pitt Rivers’ own views on the subject.
The concepts raised here somewhat tie into the next section, which
explores objects of material culture in a general and abstract way. The
final part of the element turns to an historical overview of Pitt Rivers’
life and the Oxford museum which took his name. Although by no
means exhaustive, the material presented in this element can be seen to
reflect on the study of, for example, ethnographic museumology, mater-
ial culture, or simply the life of Pitt Rivers himself, and would prove an
invaluable teaching resource for any anthropological course which
might touch upon any of these types of issues.

Themes:

The life of Lieutenant-General Pitt Rivers
The history of anthropology and ethnography in nineteenth
century Britain
The history of anthropology and ethnography at the
University of Oxford
Material culture
Ethnographic museumology
The epistemology of field collecting
Weaponry

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one week’s seminar reading for
any anthropological course concerning the study of, for example, the
history of anthropology, or anthropological methods. In this way, it
would either replace or augment the traditional library based study
required of students when preparing for seminars and essays.

In relation to seminar discussions, a number of issues could be drawn
out from the material contained here, depending on the specific require-
ments of the course:

The work of Pitt River Was Pitt Rivers a typical nineteenth century
anthropologist? How influential were his ideas on the development of
the discipline during this period? What influence has his legacy had on
the development of anthropology at the University of Oxford and
beyond?

Field collection methodsIn what ways did contemporaneous theories
exert an influence on Pitt Rivers’ epistemology of field collection?
How do alternative methods of collection (e.g. buying from auction,
collecting from field sites etc.) affect the type of material recovered?
What is the most satisfactory method of collecting ethnographic
objects?

‘Military’ artifactsWhy did Pitt Rivers collect ‘military’
artifacts (such as shields)? What can such objects tell us about the soci-
eties from which they derive? Can an examination of such objects tell
us anything about mankind as a whole?

Museum ethnography

How does the examination of museum collec-

tions aid the construction of anthropological knowledge? Why do dif-
ferent museums adopt alternative methods of displaying ethnographic
objects? In what alternative ways has the Pitt Rivers collection been
displayed?

Material cultureHow have anthropological attitudes towards the study
of material culture changed since Pitt Rivers’ time? What factors
account for this change? Will such studies continue to have relevance
for the discipline in the future?

Such questions not only provide the foundations of a seminar discus-
sion, but could also form the basis of essay questions to be completed
by the students.

Layout of the element:
The element opens at a ‘front page’ which contains an index of links to
its nine maximal parts, as well as a link to a ‘site map’. It is suggested
that new users of the element follow this link first, as this brings up an
index of all the parts (and their contents) giving an overview of the
entire element.

Users following this link will note that the index of links found on the
‘front page’ are also constantly on view throughout the entire element
(in a window on the left hand side of the browser window) and can be
used to jump to other maximal parts of the element. Once such a link
(to a maximal part) has been selected an index of all the materials con-
tained in that maximal part will be displayed in the right hand window.
A tool bar above the right hand window (which has a brown back-
ground) will also appear, which allows navigation to the (maximal
part’s) various sub-sections. All selected materials are displayed in the
right hand window.

Element 2

Peasant Social Worlds

and their Transformation

Introduction:
This element provides an account of the changing economic, social and
political situations of peasant societies in the Twentieth Century. It
begins with a brief introduction to the history of anthropological
scholarship of peasant societies before going on to explore the theoreti-
cal (Marxist) underpinnings of these studies. This section analyses the
theories of ‘development’ and ‘modernisation’ which are pertinent to
debates on the future of peasant agriculture.

Anthropological research is broad and inclusive seeking to expose the
inter-connectedness of all aspects of a ‘culture’. So this study is not just
about the economic and political issues relevant to peasant agriculture,
it also necessarily includes discussions about the position of women in
the society, issues of land rights, social and economic consequences of
labour migration, identity, religion, kinship and the ecological influ-
ences on peoples' daily lives. This element can therefore be used to
learn about a variety of topics as suggested under ‘Themes’. In addition
to theoretical and historical debates this element provides two case
studies which place the wider themes and arguments in the context of
people’s lives and their communities. The case studies here however,
provide much more than empirical data - in particular, the Brazilian
case is open-ended and reflexive, inviting thought and further analysis
on a range of issues.

Themes:

South American Ethnography
Economic Anthropology
Development Studies
Ethnicity & Nationalism
Issues of Land rights
Women & Work

Peasant Agriculture
Kinship
Field Methods
Shamanism

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one week’s seminar reading for
any anthropological course concerning the study of, for example, peas-
ant societies, or as an introduction to development studies, as well as
any of the related topics above mentioned in “Themes”. In this way, it
would replace the traditional library based study required of students
when preparing for seminars and essays.

In relation to seminar discussions, a number of issues could be drawn
out from the material contained here, depending on the specific require-
ments of the course:

Comparative ethnography/methodology

Using the two case studies to

compare the different methods and styles of ethnographic representa-
tion and analysis. What field methods are being used? How is the data
represented & in what ways does this influence our understanding of
the texts? How does the author’s presence influence our perceptions of
the societies?

The relevance of anthropologyJohn Gledhill’s Mexican Case study for
example draws on a range of interdisciplinary research methods. It
could be used to discuss how anthropology seeks to understand con-
temporary social processes.

The future of peasant studies/societies Throughout the element the
authors address the questions: are the classical models of ‘peasant soci-
ety’ and ‘peasant economy’ adequate tools of analysis today? Have
modern lifestyles made it impossible to make a clear distinction
between ‘urban’ and ‘rural’ society?

Layout of the element:
There are three ways to access the text from the main screen:

Site contents

This contains a full Table of Contents and provides direct

access to all chapters/sections and pages within the element by clicking
on the blue hypertext links.

Image mapOn the right hand side of the screen you can access each
section directly by clicking in the item boxes.

Navigational bar

By clicking on the navigation bar to the left side of

the page. This bar is consistent throughout the site

There are a number of ways of accessing and reading the element once
you leave the main screen:

Each page, except the Start page, has buttons at the bottom so that you
can move forwards or backwards through the presentation in a linear
way. These buttons are highlighted in red and called ‘Previous’ and
‘Next’You can access the main table of contents or bibliography at any
point by using the navigation bar

You can also jump between different sections and obtain more detailed
information by clicking on the hypertext links embedded in the text -
(these are the blue text links).

The search button can be used to search the entire text for relevant
information. It will display the site address for each instance where the
word / words searched for appear within the element. ***There is no
search button on the CD version.***

Element 3

‘Venda Girls’ Initiation’:

John Blacking

Introduction:
The aim of this element is not so much to outline the way in which the
Venda material marked John Blacking's work as it is to re-present his
data on initiation schools in the spirit in which it was originally pub-
lished: as an invitation for further analytical readings. The element con-
tains detailed ethnographic descriptions of Venda initiation rites as well
as exploring issues such as the anthropology of the body, biological
foundations of music, the study of affect and emotion in music and
dance, the political implications of musical performance. Other features
in this element include over one hundred song sequences, video clips
and extensive coverage of native terms found in the rituals. For a full
and detailed introduction and outline of this element click on the
‘Introduction’ link on the right hand side of the title page.

Themes:

Anthropology of the body
Visual anthropology
Ethnomusicology
Myth analysis
Analysis of symbols
Field methods/methodology

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one week’s seminar reading for
any anthropological course concerning the study of, for example,
African societies, ethnomusicology, religion, and initiation, as well as
any of the related topics above mentioned in ‘Themes’. In this way, it
would replace the traditional library based study required of students
when preparing for seminars and essays.

In relation to seminar discussions, a number of issues could be drawn
out from the material contained here, depending on the specific require-
ments of the course:

The body

Anthropology’s recent explorations of how the body is

ascribed with social meanings and identities (e.g. those concerned with
the gender) especially in the contexts of initiation rites/other ritual
events. This ties in with previous anthropological analyses of initiation
rites which have focused on such areas as the educative or performative
aspects of these rites. Modes of visual anthropological representation
are especially useful in this regard, for example, in the video clips with-
in the element one can see the processes through which the body
becomes so ascribed.

Visual anthropological epistemology Questions such as to how useful
pictorial/video data are for understanding social phenomena; can they
be used as ‘stand alone’ evidence (e.g. methods of kinesics etc.) or do
they need to be contextualised by written accounts?

Ethnomusicology

In addition to the kind of formal musical analysis

contained in the element itself, the video/song sequences allow the user
to undertake more in-depth ethnomusicological analyses. Ethnomusic-
ologists have been concerned that the analytical category of ‘music’ is
ethnocentrically biased - in an attempt to avoid this bias many theorists
have attempted to identify indigenous terms that cover similar areas of
experience to the western category of ‘music’. By including video
sequences of the song footage, the element here better enables the user
to examine the social contexts within which Venda ‘musical’ experience
is undertaken thereby enabling an examination of the indigenous con-
structions of such connections.

In addition, students could be encouraged to view Element 8which
focuses on African divination systems, including a simulation of Venda
divination as well as that practised by the Mambila. This would provide
more detail of Venda society relevant to a study of African societies in
general and Venda culture in particular.

Layout of the element:
Within this element the screen is vertically divided into two sections:

Right-hand section

This is the menu screen which contains a complete

listing of the contents of the element (there are seven chapters). By
clicking on one of these chapter links a new sub-menu of each part of
the chapter will appear in the lower half of this window. By clicking on
a link within the sub-menu the relevant text will appear in the left-hand
section. The menu screen remains in constant view irrespective of what
links have been followed.

Left-hand section

This is the active screen which contains the text

which has been chosen by clicking on a link from the menu screen. At
the end of each page is a link to go on to the ‘next’ page. By following
either of this you will be moved on to the ‘next’ part of the chapter. Or
you can use the ‘back’ button on your browser to return to the previous
page. There are also numerous links (words in blue) embedded in the
text which take you to various relevant locations or additional sources
of information. To return from one of these links to the place of exit,
simply use the ‘back’ button on your browser.

There are five additional reference links under ‘Resources’ in the main
menu window.

Bibliography

contains a list of Blacking’s publications and references

of the text.

Songs and transcriptions

which contains a complete listing of over 100

song sequences.

Video clipslink which brings up a sub-menu of all the video clips
included in the element.

A link

to a simulation of Venda Divination

Projects Suggested topics for discussion in class and essay titles.

Element 4

Working Notes on the Kingdom of

Bum: identity and ethnicity and

colonial ethnography

Introduction:
The ethnographic materials contained in this element reflect very much
on issues to do with political and ritual hierarchies and the construction
of local identity prior to independence within the region of West-central
Africa, the Cameroon Grassfields. This collection contains a variety of
ethnographic materials such as Sally Chilver’s field diary, P. Kaberry’s
field notes, early missionary reports, colonial administration records as
well as the published account of collaborative fieldwork undertaken by
Chilver and Kaberry in the 1960’s. This section provides an ethno-
graphic overview of the region and remains, to date, the starting point
for any ethnographic research in the Grassfields. Information on the
Kingdom of Bum appears in a section on 'Traditions of Migration,
Settlement and State Formation' and also in 'Social and Political
Institutions: Selected Examples'. The sections reproduced here are
taken from an earlier version entitled: 'Notes on the Precolonial History
and Ethnography of the Bamenda Grassfields (Prefectures of Bamenda,
Wum, and Nkambe). In addition, Ian Fowler and David Zeitlyn provide
a comprehensive overview of the history of studies of the Grasslands of
Cameroon and how this material fits into the cannon in the section enti-
tled ‘Introduction: the Grassfields and the Tikar’.

Themes:

African Societies
History of Anthropology
Identity/Ethnicity
Methodology
Field Methods
Ethnographic Styles/Representation

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one week’s seminar reading or as
recommended reading for essay writing relevant to the themes men-
tioned above. A number of issues suggested below give an idea of the
kinds of topics which could be used in seminars and/or for preparing
essays:

Question of representationDifferent types of account. This element
contains material from C19 and early C20 travellers’ accounts,
missionary accounts, anthropological field notes, Divisional Office
files, published accounts.

Identity/ethnicity

Boundaries, kinship links, trade routes, language, pol-

itics of naming, historicity etc?

Native terms

Their use in anthropology?

Field notes versus published accounts

(relationship between the two)?

Time depth here against synchronicity of ‘ethnographic present’?

Issues of linearity

Reading texts all the way through versus keywords

searches for specific words/topics: how does this subvert the reading of
the documents (e.g. de-contextualises them)?

Layout of the element:
There are two main points of entry to the text from the content/
welcome page:

The Welcome Page

leads to a left-hand navigation bar, plus a main dis-

play. You can access all of the site via the navigation bar.

Contents listing link

This contains a full Table of Contents and provides

direct access to all pages within the element by clicking on the blue
hypertext links of the relevant section. Alternatively you can click on

the ‘description’ link on the right hand side to read a brief description
of each section. Each description page offers you direct access to a sec-
tion by clicking on the ‘Go to files’ link at the bottom of each descrip-
tion page.

In addition there are a number of ways of accessing and reading the
element once you leave the contents/welcome screen. Access is via the
menu box at the base of each page or the navigation bar:

This contains links to the next section or most closely linked file to the
one currently being viewed.

The contents page

(see above)

A glossaryThe first set of diary pages has been linked to a glossary
file, as have the two sections of the published account. On each page
the first mention of a topic or character (highlighted in blue) offers a
link to the glossary which in turn offers a brief explanation of the term.

***You may always return to your last point of departure very simply
by clicking the 'back' arrow at the top of the browser screen.***

A separate bibliography

file is also included and can be accessed

directly from the contents page or from the embedded links to this in
the main text.

Element 5

The Ascoli Project: a Puglian

town and its hinterland

Introduction:
This project examines changes in kinship and family forms and in mar-
riage and inheritance strategies during the period 1700-1990 in Ascoli
Satriano, a small ‘city’ in southern Italy. The project seeks to offer a
new synthesis of historical and anthropological materials, using a com-
bination of archival material and ethnographic fieldwork while explor-

ing the main documentary research resources available to

historically-

inclined anthropologists. By focusing on the forms, time-spread, limita-
tions and circumstances of production of these sources, it calls for a
more critical analysis of greater time depth than is commonly found in
existing historical-anthropological studies of south Italy. It raises issues
concerned with the problems in employing historical materials, i.e. in
understanding the context and methods of their creation for example.

Themes:

European Anthropology
Historical Anthropology
Kinship, Family Structure & Inheritance
Peasant Agriculture
Archival Research
Methodology

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one week’s seminar reading for
any anthropological course concerning the study of archival material
and the use of historical research within anthropology. It can also be
used more specifically for research involving one or several of the top-
ics listed above under ‘Themes’. In relation to seminar discussions or
essay topics, a number of issues could be drawn out from the material
contained here, depending on the specific requirements of the course:

History & anthropologyThe importance of historical data to contextu-
alise but also to reconstruct kinship patterns etc. What are the problems
with using historical sources? i.e. context and methods of creation of
sources.

Archival research/methodologyTo give students an introduction to crit-
ical reading; that is how to understand biases: historical sources biased
by early administrators as much as writers in the 1950’s. for example,
were influenced by structural-functionalist theory. To introduce students
to different types of sources (other than just standard ethnographies)
from which ethnographic information can be derived. Contemporary
anthropology has concern for thinking about novels/media etc. as
sources of information about other cultures, in the same ways, histori-
cal sources (although often not produced by the local people them-
selves) can be of similar use.

Layout of the element:
The project opens at the:

‘Introduction’screen This outlines the project in brief and explains its
objectives and uses to the reader. To move to the rest of the project, fol-
low the ‘Continue looking at the Ascoli Project’ link at the end (text in
purple).

Within this element there are four units which are listed in the Main
Indexscreen. This contains four titles which are links to the four units
which make up this element. By clicking on one of the four titles on
this screen the introductory page of the selected unit will appear.

There are two ways of accessing the material contained within each
unit once you have accessed the introductory or title page of a unit:

By following the links within the text.
or
Using the menu on the left side of each page

For example, to access Unit One:

Click on the Houses, kin and neighbours

section in the Main Index

screen; the introductory page of this section will appear. There are two
ways to access the material in this and the other three units:

Family and Neighbourhoodindex link at the end of the text
or
Menu bar on the left of the screenThis contains direct links to each
section of the unit - article, documents, analysis or index of topics
which provides a table of contents for this unit. This menu bar at the
top also contains the option of going back to the main index of the ele-
ment which lists each of the four units.

At the end of each main page of text there is the option to go back to
the previous page/screen or to go back to the unit index or to the main
index of the element.

Following embedded links within the text will also have the option at
the end of the page to return to the previous page/screen by using either
the ‘back’ option or ‘index’ option.

And, at end of the main index screen, there is a return link to the intro-
duction page of the element.

*** Searches of the database are available online only, not on the CD
version.***

Element 6

Ancestors in Africa: selected

readings and Mambila

case material

Introduction:
This element provides a comprehensive overview of the ways in which
anthropologists have attempted to understand the phenomenon of
African ancestor beliefs. It begins with a collection of some of the
‘classic’ discussions of this subject, including those of Fortes, Calhoun
and Kopytoff, who were the key protagonists in a series of correspon-
dence concerning this topic which appeared in the Journal of the Royal

Anthropological Institute

(then called Man) and which are reproduced

in the second section here. The issues raised in this debate expand the
usefulness of this element beyond the specific study of ancestors per se,
focusing as they do on the problems raised by translating native terms
into our own, and thereby addressing a wider anthropological concern
regarding the compatibility of anthropologists’ and natives’ categories
of representation. The final section turns to a specific case study, that of
the Mambila of Cameroon. Materials presented in this section include
not only completed articles but also fieldnote data, which makes the
example useful not only for assessing the relative merits of the various
positions taken within the (above) debate, but also for thinking about
issues concerning the application of wider theoretical frameworks to
specific ethnographic cases, and more generally, for understanding the
process through which ethnographic accounts are constructed from
fieldnotes. This self contained element therefore facilitates not only the
detailed study of a single topic, but also an examination of various
wider anthropological concerns, all of which can be approached
through a combination of primary and secondary source material.

Themes:

African ethnography
African cosmology
Ancestor beliefs

Kinship
Concept of the person
Epistemology

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one week’s seminar reading for
any anthropological course concerning the study of, for example, ritual
and religion, or African societies. In this way, it would replace the tra-
ditional library based study required of students when preparing for
seminars and essays.

In relation to seminar discussions, a number of issues could be drawn
out from the material contained here, depending on the specific require-
ments of the course:

African ancestor beliefs

What are ancestors? What is their structural

position within African societies? How are they thought of by African
people?

African cosmologies

How are ancestor beliefs located within wider cos-

mological systems? What is the difference between ancestors and other
types of spirits? Why do some African societies have ‘cults’ to both the
ancestors and other types of dead?

The anthropological use of ‘native terms’

Why do some anthropolo-

gists make great use of native terms in their accounts? How are their
analyses enriched by such inclusions? What are the problems involved
in translating native categories into those of the anthropologist and her
audience?

The construction of anthropological knowledgeWhy do anthropologists
place such high value on the close examination of single societies?
How do anthropologists derive theories from such case studies(or vice
versa)? What are the problems involved in applying wider anthropolog-
ical theories to the study of a single society?

The study of fieldnotes

Why have some ethnographers in recent years

included fieldnotes in their monographs? Is there a qualitative differ-
ence between the type of ethnographic information contained in field-
note data and that contained in published accounts? What is the rela-
tionship between fieldnotes and finished monographs?

Such questions not only provide the foundations of a seminar discus-
sion, but could also form the basis of essay questions to be completed
by the students.

Layout of the element:
Within this element, the screen is vertically divided into two
sections:

Left-hand sectionThis section contains a complete listing of the con-
tents of the element (divided into the three sections outlined above) and
remains on constant view irrespective of what links have been fol-
lowed. The user is able to navigate the section by either scrolling down
it, or by clicking on one of the three ‘section’ links at the top (which
brings the contents menu for that section into view).

Right-hand sectionThis may be termed the ‘active window’, and dis-
plays the results of the link that has been followed from the right hand
section. Such results may include the complete text of an article, a
series of correspondence from the journal Man, or a series of excerpts
from David Zeitlyn’s Mambila fieldnotes. The former type here may
contain footnotes, which can be followed up via embedded links in the
left hand screen, the ‘back’ button on the browser then allowing the
user to return to the point of her departure from the text. When the user
has finished studying the document, another one can be selected from
the menu on the left hand section.

Suggestions:
When getting the students to prepare for a seminar, it would be worth
getting them to read a selection of the papers contained in the first
section of the element, which would give them a good outline of the
topic.

The student should perhaps read the second section as an entire unit. In
this way, they would not only get an in-depth understanding of the
issues involved with this subject, but also a complete overview of an
academic debate, thereby providing them with a good understanding of
the processes through which academic theories are produced and
received.

The fieldnote material should be read in conjunction with a number of
the other articles (and not only those relating directly to the Mambila)
which can be achieved by clicking back and forth using the menu in the
left hand section. This enables the students to examine the relationship
between such fieldnote materials and final anthropological accounts.

It is a good idea to refer students to Element 4

Working Notes on the

Kingdom of Bum: identity and ethnicity and colonial ethnography
which can be used as complementary material to that contained in this
element.

Element 7

Mambila Riddles

Introduction:
This element provides an interactive introduction to Mambila riddles as
well as providing a more general anthropological context to the study
of riddles. The article on the function of riddles by Ian Hamnet sug-
gests that riddles and riddling may illuminate some of the principles
that underlie classification in social action and cognition generally and
can, in particular, indicate the role that ambiguities play in the classifi-
catory process. This research is situated in more recent anthropological
scholarship which has brought classification into the foreground and
has aroused an awareness of related problems concerning the mecha-
nisms where by conceptual categories are set up, preserved and mediat-
ed. Questions have been either explicitly or implicitly raised as to the
role of ambiguous or interstitial items in classificatory schemes; they
can be seen as the objects of interdiction (taboo) and as indispensable
means for the continued functioning of society.

***The interactive "riddle machine" requires an online connection.***

Themes:

African societies
Sociolinguistics
Anthropological study of riddles

Using the element in teaching:
This material could be read in conjunction with the other elements
dealing with this Cameroonian people for a more comprehensive study
of the Mambila (cf Elements 6, 7, & 9). It could be used to comple-
ment (rather than replace) one week’s seminar reading for any course
on African societies or sociolinguistics.

Layout of element:
There are three sections to this element, each can be accessed via the
links on the main page:

An articlefirst published in Man(n.s.) by Ian Hamnet on the
function of riddles, including a list of references.

Bibliography of anthropological studies of riddles.

Ask me a riddle

containing a collection of riddles and the riddle

machine. Instructions on how to use the riddle machine are listed on
the main page of the element.

The reader can return to the main page at the end of each section by
clicking on the ‘back’ button of the browser.

Element 8

Mambila Divination

Introduction:
This element introduces users to the practicalities of divination sys-
tems, and contains two interactive simulations (the ‘divining dice’ and
‘Mambila spider divination’). After a brief introduction, which includes
several previously published articles on this topic, users are able to try
their own hand at Venda and Mambila divination systems, and thereby
gain a feel for the processes involved in the formulation of oracular
interpretations. This element, as well as providing an additional source
of information on the Mambila (complementary to the other elements
dealing with this Cameroonian people; cf. Elements 6, 7 and 9) also
exploits the interactive possibilities of the hypertext format in an innov-
ative way. The element would not so much replace the traditional semi-
nar reading list, as act as a complementary source of material for it,
allowing readers who are perhaps grappling with the ideas contained in

such classic works as Evans-Pritchard’s

Witchcraft, oracles and magic

among the Azande (1937) for example,to test these ideas against real
(simulated) instances of divination.

Themes:

African Societies
Ritual and Religion
Rationality

Layout of the element:
The ‘front page’ of this element contains links to both of the interactive

parts of the element (titled The Divining Dice

and Mambila Spider

Divination) as well as various other links, including two for David
Zeitlyn’s published articles on Mambila Divination (which are perhaps
best read as introductory sections). Users can also link from this page
to the (online) Virtual Institute of Mambila Studies, to an online bibli-
ography of anthropological sources on divination and oracles, and to an
internet search on divination-related sites.

Using the interactive parts of the element:
The Divining Dice:
***This part of the element may not work with some older versions of
Internet Explorer and Netscape, as it requires Java to be enabled.***

The top of the screen shows a picture of the four ‘divining dice’ the
Venda use for purposes of divination (representing, from left to right -
Vhami [old man], Tshilume [young man], Twalima [old woman],
Lumwe [young woman]). Clicking on this picture will ‘activate’ the
simulation, randomly producing one of the sixteen possible combina-
tions of the dice (as determined by the number [and order] of dice
facing upwards).

Users can view the interpretations Venda diviners would give to each of
these combinations in the box below the picture. These are given in the
vernacular, but also include ‘literal’ translations. Below this the user is
also presented with Stayt’s own interpretations of these diagnoses,
which explain the meaning of the diviners’ pronouncements.

Mambila Spider Divination:
***This part of the element may not work with some older versions of
Internet Explorer and Netscape, as it requires Java to be enabled.***

1. Following this link leads the user to a page which outlines the
processes involved in Mambila spider divinations, and the basic princi-
ples involved in their interpretation. Users should read this page as an
introduction to the simulation which follows (which can be accessed by
following the link Go to the Spider Divination Simulationat the end)
and which allows them to apply these principles for themselves in a
real (simulated) spider divination.

***To make the simulation work on older versions of Internet Explorer
or Netscape users may have to ‘refresh’ the screen, by ‘resizing’ the
entire browser window (by clicking on its bottom right corner) after
every command sent to the simulation (i.e. every time one of its buttons

is selected). This is necessary because a number of the ‘buttons’ may
disappear from view after one has been pressed. These will return to
view once the browser window is resized.***

2. To use the simulation, the user must first press the Spiderbutton on
the bottom left hand corner of the screen. This acts to cover the pot
with the lid.

3. From here, the Showbutton will uncover the pot to reveal the pattern
of leaves upon which the divination can be carried out. To conduct
another ‘divination’, the user should press these same buttons again, in
the same order. To return to the starting point (i.e. an uncovered pot
with no leaves in it) the user should select the Resetbutton.

***The eight buttons on the left hand side of the simulation picture will
not work on older versions of Internet Explorer and Netscape, and
should be ignored by users. In addition, at this time the Logbutton is
not yet activated, and therefore should not be used.***

Using the element in teaching:
This element could perhaps complement (rather than completely
replace) one week’s seminar reading for any anthropological course
concerning the study of, for example, African societies, medical anthro-
pology, or ritual and religion. In this way, it would be an addition to the
traditional library based study required of students when preparing for
seminars and essays. The element could contribute to a study of a
number of anthropological themes:

African societies

In what ways are Mambila divination systems typical

of those found throughout the African continent?

Ritual and religion

To what extent can divination sessions be termed

‘rituals’ (is it meaningful to analytically distinguish them from ‘secu-
lar’ activities)?

Rationality What similarities/differences exist between such divinations
and ‘rational’ western medical diagnoses?

Discourse analysis

What can the study of divination dialogues tell us

about indigenous power relations and issues concerning the ‘control’ of
meaning?

Ethnomethodology What models of knowledge do the actors them-
selves bring to the experience of divination?

In addition to the above mentioned themes students could be encour-

aged to view Element 3

which focuses on Blacking’s work on the

Venda. This would provide a more detailed account of Venda society
relevant to the context of venda divinations as detailed in this element.

Element 9

The work of Farnham Rehfisch

and other archival sources

on the Mambila

Introduction:
This element comprises a collection of historical, ethnographic and
colonial material on the Mambila and provides an opportunity for criti-
cal reading of such accounts as well as showing the importance of his-
torical sources to contemporary scholarship. The colonial officers were
concerned with patterns of political power and allegiance mainly
because they wanted to simplify the process of tax collection; in the
early 1950’s when Rehfisch was studying, patterns of power and the
organisation of social relationships were the central concerns. By the
time Zeitlyn began his studies in Cambridge in the 1980’s the role of
language and religion had gained far greater prominence. The collec-
tion thus allows the reader to trace the changing interests of the writers
and to place in an historical context the issues with which this study is
concerned.

Themes:

African societies
History of anthropology
Critical reading
Comparative ethnography
Methodology

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one week’s seminar reading for
any anthropological course concerning the study of, for example,
African societies, or the history of anthropology. More specifically, one
can use these earlier sources as a resource for the Twentieth Century
History of the Mambila, to complement and provide depth to oral his-
torical research and/or to use them to provide a context for the reading
of later documents.

In relation to seminar discussions or essay topics, a number of issues
could be drawn out from the material contained in this element,
depending on the specific requirements of the course:

Reading historical sources

To understand later documents, (of

Rehfisch, and subsequently Zeitlyn) which were often written as
responsesto/in dialogue with these earlier ones; to give students an
introduction to critical reading, that is, how to understand biases. For
example, historical sources biased by colonial administrations as much
as writers in the 1950’s were influenced by structural-functionalist the-
ory to introduce students to different types of sources (other than just
standard ethnographies) from which ethnographic information can be
derived.

The production of ethnographic knowledge

Why have some ethnogra-

phers in recent years included fieldnotes in their monographs? Is there
a qualitative difference between the type of ethnographic information
contained in fieldnote data and that contained in published accounts?
What is the relationship between fieldnotes and finished monographs?

Critical reading of academic arguments/conflicts between writers of
different sourcesThis provides a chance for students to overview an
academic argument [although short] between Meek and Percival, but
also, more generally, to examine how writers of different sources share
different ideas/assumptions, or disagree on these.

Layout of the element:
There are essentially three different types of material in this element:

Some early documentary sources on Mambilaaccessed by its link on
the ‘main element page’

Rehfisch’s published accountsaccessed by clicking on the links towards
the end of the ‘main element page’.

Mambila fieldnotescontaining Rehfisch’s unpublished work, accessed
by the links at the bottom of the main page.

The reader can return from these links to the main element page using
the ‘back’ button on the browser. An additional link to other sources on
the Mambila can be accessed by clicking on the link The Virtual

Institute of Mambila Studies

- at the end of the ‘main element page’.

Suggestion: This material could be read in conjunction with the other
elements dealing with Cameroonian people for a more comprehensive

E10

Element 10

Ritual spirit possession in the

Mina Nago of Northern Brazil

This element introduces users to issues concerning religious perfor-
mance in the Tambor de Mina of Northern Brazil. Juxtaposing audio-
visual documents and text (the latter of which derives primarily from
the author’s PhD thesis, ‘The phenomenology of spirit possession in the
Tambor de Mina’, Nicolau, 1997) in an interactive way, it attempts to
move away from ‘traditional’ methods of visual ethnographic represen-
tation, such as that of documentary cinema. After an introductory sec-
tion which gives the background ethnographic context of the Mina
Nago people, the element goes on to explore one case of ritual spirit
possession. Here the element falls into two parts - the first studying the
opening song sequences and other ritual features of the possession ‘cer-
emony’, the second part examining that part of the ritual during which
individuals become possessed by spiritual entities. The element pro-
vides an examination not only of spirit possession rituals, but also of
the possibilities afforded anthropologists by multimedia ethnographies,
which allow a coherent integration of sound, visual, and textual data
within a single (interactive) environment.

Themes:

Brazilian ethnography
Brazilian cosmology
Spirit possession
Concepts of the person
Ethnographic representation

Using the element in teaching:
This element could complement one week’s seminar reading for any
anthropological course concerning the study of, for example, ritual and
religion, or Brazilian/Latin American societies. Whilst not acting as a
replacement for text based materials, it would allow students to exam-

E10

ine some of the more theoretical concepts involved in the study of
possession rituals in relation to a multimedia case study.

In relation to seminar discussions, a number of issues could be drawn
out from the material contained here, depending on the specific require-
ments of the course:

Brazilian spirit possession beliefs

What is spirit possession? How does

it operate to maintain social structure? How is it thought of by
Brazilian people?

Brazilian cosmologies

How are spirit possession beliefs located within

wider cosmological systems? What is the difference between posses-
sion rituals and other types of ‘religious’ performance?

Ethnographic representationWhat advantages do multimedia docu-
ments have over purely textual ones for purposes of ethnographic
representation? How do they differ from documentary cinema films?
What role will they play in future anthropological projects?

Such questions not only provide the foundations of a seminar discus-
sion, but could also form the basis of essay questions to be completed
by the students.

Layout of the element:
As stated above, the element falls into three parts, which can be
accessed through clicking on the pictures of the ‘main’ page:

Introduction: The Tambor de Mina public ceremoniesThis section is
divided into five pages, which can be navigated using the arrow key at
the bottom of the picture, which remains present on all screens. In addi-
tion, in the bottom left-hand corner of all screens are links back to the
‘main’ page, as well as links to a glossary search (this link is called
‘abc’) and a bibliography search (entitled ‘biblio’).

E10

Opening song sequence and ritual featuresThis section is modelled
around a section of video, and textual materials are all linked into this.
In the bottom left-hand corner of the screen here, in addition to the
‘main’, ‘abc’ and ‘biblio’ links (see above) is a link entitled ‘help’.
New users of the element must click this link and read the information
it brings up, as this information demonstrates how to use the element in
an interactive way, in particular explaining how to bring up supplemen-
tary information from the video, (using the ‘green rectangles’).

Manifestation of the spiritual entities

The layout of this part of the ele-

ment is identical to that of the previous section (above).

E11

Element 11 Representing kinship

Introduction:
This element contains two interactive parts which introduce users to the
various issues involved in the modelling of kinship systems. The first
part (the ‘Kinship editor’) enables users to create their own genealogi-
cal diagrams. Using simple control commands, users can bring into
existence men or women, and link these together through two alterna-
tive types of ‘relationship’ (marriage or sibling-ship).

The second interactive part (‘Kinship in Prolog’) introduces users to the
complexities of modelling systems of kinship terminology. Several
written sources are also included throughout the element, all of which
introduce users to the various representational issues involved. The ele-
ment is designed to be used as a pedagogical tool, and would prove an
invaluable teaching aid for any anthropological course concerning the
study of kinship. Not only does it get students thinking about some of
the representational issues involved in kinship studies, but also forces
them to critically analyse the very categories anthropologists (and local
people) apply to kin relations. Given that unions can be created
between two individuals of the same sex (in the editor) for example,
how applicable/useful is a concept such as ‘marriage’, as applied to
these unions? Or, how are concepts of sibling ship effected by the phe-
nomenon of adoption, etc?

Using the element in teaching:
This element would prove complementary to one week’s seminar read-
ing for any course concerning the study of kinship.

The kinship editor can be used by students to model their own family
trees, for example, or those of well known kinship groupings, such as
the royal family’s. Using the facilities provided, you might also get

E11

them to enter biographical details (DOB, etc.) for each of the
individuals included. By adding dates the program can be made to play
back the development of the family over time.

Learning Kinship with the Kinship EditorThis introductory page to the
kinship element explains how to use the editor and why kinship is
important within anthropological scholarship. It should be read before
using the editor programme as it highlights some of the questions and
issues concerned with anthropological research based on kinship. For
instance, the programme allows any two individuals to be linked in a
'union'. Thus we can explore the variants on ‘marriage’ unions with
other unions and the implications this has for the significance society
gives to relationships. For example, how do 'adulterous' relationships
differ from those resulting from divorce and remarriage? Or, same sex
unions. Are these significantly different from mixed-sex ones?
Consider, too, the case for adoption: under British law it is entirely
legal for two full siblings who have been adopted by different families
to wed and have children. This section provides a useful starting point
for discussions concerning the social construction of 'marriage', for
example; the meaning of kinship-based relationships, and how society
constructs them. The issues raised in this introduction could be used as
the basis for seminar discussions and essay topics. Alternatively, the
‘editor’ might form the central focus of a lecture or seminar presenta-
tion, as it would prove a simple and effective visual aid for the demon-
stration of a number of the concepts anthropologists have employed in
their analyses of kin relations.

Calculating Kin: Analysing and Understanding Cultural Codes

Using

the ‘kinship in Prolog’ part, it is possible to get students thinking about
the problems involved in creating models of kinship terminologies. It
raises issues about how kinship categories (son, mother etc.) are con-
structed through an application of classificatory distinctions (e.g. those
based on sex and generation etc.).

E11

Layout of the element:
***The interactive parts of the element may not work with some older
versions of Netscape and Internet Explorer, as they require java to be
enabled.***

Kinship editor
The layout of this element is somewhat self-explanatory. It is worth
pointing out, however, that the instructions for using the editor are
included underneath the editor itself, on the same page. There are two
panels contained within the editor:

The blue panel at the top of the page

This contains boxes where one

enters information about the people in your kinship model. At present
only the Name, Comment, Birth Year and Death Year fields are opera-
tive. Information can only be entered once you have placed a person
symbol in the white panel.

The white panel This is the middle section of the page and it is where
your kinship diagram is created. By clicking in the blank area of this
panel a menu will appear with a person or marriage link for selection.
This is how to begin drawing your kinship model - by choosing a per-
son or marriage symbol from the menu. Once you have a symbol you
can enter information on the person or marriage in the blue panel
above. This is done by clicking once on the symbol which will turn red.
You can now enter the information.

‘Help’

Clicking on the help button at the centre of the blue panel opens

a new window which contains detailed instructions on how to create
kinship structures. For example, how to create a sibling relationship or
marriage link between two people, how to move an entire nuclear fami-
ly within the diagram, and how to delete symbols or links where neces-
sary. Before attempting to draw up a diagram you should read these
instructions carefully.

E11

Calculating Kin
This section is divided into six interrelated parts accessed by the
following links:

Culture and classification: Models and systems

This provides an intro-

duction to the use of models within anthropological research & scholar-
ship. Models are based on systems which we use to understand soci-
eties. One of the responsibilities of the anthropologist is to identify
these systems of reduction and organisation, these indigenous models
of the world and their experience in the world, and to attempt to under-
stand the basis by which these models are constructed.

Modelling kinship

This section explains the importance to anthropolo-

gists of understanding and analysing kinship terminologies. It deals
with how kinship terminologies are organised through providing a
means of classifying relationships with other people, for every person
in the society, and how genealogical relationships are different from
kinship relationships.

Computers and Kinship A survey of the history of the use by anthro-
pologists of kinship-related computer applications. Anthropologists
have shown considerable interest in the use of computers for analysing
kinship and genealogical data.

Defining conceptual requirements Here we consider defining the con-
ceptual terms to which we shall apply the computer-based analytic pro-
cedures. The conceptual terms must be determined, in whole, by ana-
lytical requirements rather than computing requirements. The structure
and definition of conceptual terms are independent of whether or not a
computer is to be used.

Specifications: modelling kinship terminologies

Using English Kinship

Terminology (EKT) as the example it illustrates how to analyse a ter-
minology. For a terminology to be useful there must be a systematic
way to assign kinship names to individuals, e.g. match up genealogical
positions to kinship terms.

E11

Programming our terminologiesProlog is a good computer program-
ming language for dealing with complex structural systems such as that
presented by kinship. The instructions for the ‘Kinship in Prolog’ part
are located above it, again on its page. It is recommended that users of
this latter interactive part first read Fischer’s paper ‘Computer
Representations of Anthropological Knowledge’ as an introductory pas-
sage, which can be accessed through the link ‘paper’ located just above
the engine itself.

Other sites of interest:
Tutorial on Kinship Terminology(Brian Schwimmer)
(An excellent online interactive tutorial session, introducing the basics
of kinship study [especially good for complete beginners].)
at: http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/kintitle.html

Yanomamo Interactive Web Version(Contains much information which
is useful for thinking about the construction of kin diagrams) at:
http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/axfight/prep.html

E12

Element 12

Computer-based Simulation

Modelling for Anthropologists

Introduction:
This element comprises a number of different sections relevant to the
use and study of simulation and knowledge representation in anthropo-
logical research. Simulation is a kind of modelling which is useful for a
wide range of problems and situations. It has applications to both quan-
titative and qualitative problems with either very good data, or very lit-
tle data. It has important implications for disciplines such as social
anthropology which are basically non-experimental, providing a means
of exploring problems which could never be observed to order.
Simulation can be an important tool for the social researcher aware of
its limitations.

Themes:

Representation
Methodology
Using models
Simulation
Authority

Layout of this element:
The main element page contains direct links to the different sections
within the element. The links can be accessed by simply clicking on the
selected section in the yellow panel on the left hand side of the screen.

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one or more week’s seminar read-
ing for any course in the use of models & simulation in anthropological
research and/or on how knowledge is represented. In this way, it would
replace the traditional library based study required of students when
preparing for seminars and essays.

E12

In relation to seminar discussions, a number of issues could be drawn
out from the material contained here, depending on the specific require-
ments of the course:

The purpose of models for anthropological analysis.

What is a simulation attempting to represent? What are its strengths
and weaknesses?

Discuss kinship as an anthropological construct and its relationship to
kinship as an indigenous construct? How are the descriptive and analyt-
ic models anthropologists use to describe kinship helpful in understand-
ing the role of kinship in a given society?

E13

Element 13

A day in the Life ... Somié Village,

Province de l'Adamaoua, Cameroon

(April, 1999)

Introduction:
This element comprises a series of video clips taken by the ethnograph-
er David Zeitlyn at approximately one hour intervals, throughout a 12
hour period, of Somié village, Cameroon. The clips were shot in three
locations - a residential setting, the village square, and a cross-roads
near a dispensary. This element is primarily visual although it also
includes reflections from the ethnographer on the use and techniques
employed in the filming, as well as several exercises for students to aid
their learning of anthropological methods through visual representa-
tions. Viewing this element in addition to the other elements on the
Mambila (Elements 6,7,8,9) is strongly recommended.

Themes:

Representation
Methodology
Visual anthropology

Using the element in teaching:

Exercises for students

There are several exercises suggested for stu-

dents on the main element page which deal with issues such as ‘repre-
sentative locations’, using visual aids as field methods, and method-
ological problems which arise through observation. These exercises
could be used as the basis for seminar discussions within any anthropo-
logical course dealing with methodology, representation and/or visual
anthropology.

Students could do these exercises before reading the background infor-
mation as an exercise which challenges assumptions and ethnocentric
perceptions. Then read the background information to see how differ-
ent/similar some of the descriptions and explanations are.

E13

Divide students into different groups for the exercise: one group which
reads the background information first and then performs the exercises,
another group does the exercise without any pre-read data.

Layout of the element:
The data in this element is presented in two ways:

Short textsThese provide a context to the research and to the village.
Text is both above and below the table containing links to the movie
clips. (Exercises for students can be found below the table).

Visual materialEach movie clip can be viewed by clicking on the
selected link within the table. When a link has been activated a small
movie screen will appear and the video may be viewed by clicking on
the ‘play’ button which is located on the left hand side of the tool bar
below each movie screen. Also on this page there are a number of links
to the other video clips (the links shown as hours) as well as the option
of returning to the main page ‘A day in the life...’

E14

Element 14

Forty-five years in two

Turkish Villages,

1949-1994

Introduction:
This element comprises data collected by Prof. Paul Stirling during his
ethnographic research in two Turkish villages between 1949 and 1994.
It is rare for an anthropologist to provide a more-or-less complete
record of their field research. This element therefore is most valuable
as a teaching and learning resource as it provides an example of how
ethnographic research can be presented to encourage greater trans-
parency and depth rather than presenting fragments of data from which
the student must theorise. This element includes field notes, photo-
graphic images, articles, unpublished papers, Stirling’s book Turkish
Villageas well as his PhD thesis.

Themes:

European anthropology
Field methods
Methodology
Peasant societies

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one week’s teaching for any
anthropological course concerning the study of anthropological meth-
ods, research on Turkey or any of the themes above mentioned. In this
way, it would either replace or augment the traditional library based
study required of students when preparing for seminars or essays.
Below are two exercises suggested for use as a teaching resource:

Option 1:
Choose a paper by Stirling
What are the conclusions of the paper?
Look through his ethnographic field notes

E14

Using key words, prepare documentary evidence from the notes to sup-
port the conclusions to the paper you choose (You are trying to recon-
struct the material that the paper you used is based on.).

Option 2:
Choose one the following topics with associated articles:
Discuss social change at the different levels dealt with in the three arti-
cles assigned:

Structural Changes in Middle East Society
Growth and Changes: Speed Scale Complexity
Labour Migration and Changes in Anatolia

Discuss notions of public versus private morality, the role of the state,
and informal controls.

A Death And a Youth Club: Feuding in a Turkish Village
Impartiality And Personal Morality
Land, Marriage, And the Law in Turkish Villages

Discuss the relationship of wealth and power..

Social Ranking in a Turkish Village
Land, Marriage And the Law in Turkish Villages
Labour Migration and Changes in Anatolia

In the case of at least one of the articles listed, material from the field
notes is important. Search the field notes and discuss this material. In
addition to these examples a number of issues could be drawn out from
the material to form the basis of essays, seminars or discussions:

Process of research from field notes to published ethnographic
article
The use of pictorial data in understanding social phenomena
Processes involved in archiving material

Web sites:
http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Stirling/MA/
http://sapir.ukc.ac.uk/SLyon/
http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/index.html

E15

Element 15

Powell-Cotton Museum

at Quex Park

Introduction:
This element is both a display and an account of the Quex Park muse-
um established by Major Powell-Cotton, originally to display to the
public his collection of hunted wildlife which had been obtained on his
expeditions to Africa and the Indian sub-continent. As technologies
such as television have come into being, ideas about the presentation of
natural history have changed. It is with this in mind that the authors of
this element have viewed Quex Park as a 'museum of a museum'. This
emphasis therefore provides value not only in informing us about the
wildlife and people of Africa but also more significantly, about the cul-
ture of those who established the museum and those who would have
visited in the past. The Powell-Cotton museum represents an ethnologi-
cal and natural science interpretation from another era. It shows not
only images of Africa, but by its presentation and visual content is rep-
resentative of a specific perspective from our own culture. There are
several sections to the element containing archive film material, photo-
graphic presentations, as well as contemporary perspectives on the
museum, its collections and owner via a video interview & commen-
tary by the present assistant curator.

Themes:

Visual anthropology
Material culture
Ethnographic museumology
Visual anthropology methodology
Archival Research

Using the element in teaching:
This element could form the basis of one week’s seminar reading for
any anthropological course concerning the study of, for example, visual
anthropological methods, museumology as well as those topics listed

E15

under ‘Themes’. In this way, it would either replace or augment the
traditional library based study required of students when preparing for
seminars and essays.

In relation to seminar discussions, a number of issues could be drawn
out from the material contained here, depending on the specific require-
ments of the course:

Museum ethnography

How does the examination of museum collec-

tions aid the construction of anthropological knowledge? Why do dif-
ferent museums adopt alternative methods of displaying ethnographic
objects?

Material cultureHow have anthropological attitudes towards the study
of material culture changed since the nineteenth century? What factors
account for this change? Will such studies continue to have relevance
for the discipline in the future?

Field collection methods

In what ways did contemporaneous theories

exert an influence on Powell-Cotton’s epistemology of field collection?
How do alternative methods of collection (e.g. buying from auction,
collecting from field sites etc.) affect the type of material recovered?
What is the most satisfactory method of collecting ethnographic
objects?

Cultural ArtifactsWhat can such objects tell us about the societies
from which they derive? Can an examination of such objects tell us
anything about mankind as a whole?

Such questions not only provide the foundations of a seminar discus-
sion, but could also form the basis of essay questions to be completed
by the students.

E15

Layout of the element:
There are ten links on the main page which access the various parts of
this element. Each link contains a ‘Back Home’ link at the end of the
page which takes you back to the main frame of the element. From here
you may select further links. Some pages when accessed, (e.g. the
‘Introduction’ page) also contain embedded links within the text
(underlined text in blue). By clicking on one of these the section of
which it is a part, will open. You can always return to the main page by
clicking on the ‘Back Home’ link situated at the bottom of each page.
Alternatively, you can click the ‘back’ button on the browser to return
to the previous page viewed. (This ‘back’ button is above the element
frame in the panel at the top of the screen).

To enlarge the photographs contained in the ‘Photographs From
Expedition Albums’ for a better view, simply click on them and a big-
ger image will appear. However, to listen to the commentary on each
picture the photograph must be the original size.

Links:
It is suggested to read this element in conjunction with Element 1of
the ERA project.

Example

ERA in Action:

Social Organisation, Economy

and Development in Pakistan.

This project was not prepared for ERA, but it probably represents one
of the best marriages of research with teaching and learning materials.
Stephen Lyon prepared this site on an ongoing basis while doing active
doctoral research in a village in northern Punjab, Pakistan. As this
Guide goes to press (August 1999) Stephen is still in the field, so there
is more to come! While in the field he will be examining the relation-
ship between social organisation, economy and development in an agri-
cultural community. His website is designed with two goals in mind.
Firstly, to make available some of the field data as it is being collected
- an experiment in 'open' ethnography. Secondly, to encourage users to
comment on ongoing research offering alternate explanations or
examples of their own experiences. Comments on the website from
non-anthropologists as well as anthropologists, and, in particular,
Pakistanis living outside of Pakistan are welcome: a selection of users'
comments are made available periodically.

This project therefore makes it possible for students to see a research
project develop over its full course, not simply a writeup after it is
complete. When Stephen Lyon returns he intends to continue to update
the online site (<http://sapir.ukc.ac.uk/SLyon/index.html>) as he analy-
ses his material and writes his thesis, which should provide some infor-
mative moments, as well as some amusing ones.

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