Information for students

  


Advice for students(Acrobat Reader file) You can find another version of this file in the folder manual_pdf on the top level of this CD
  How to Use the ERA Resources


  The site is broken up into individual projects, and each of these pro-
jects has a different navigation system. However, there are some basic
guidelines which will help you to use the projects to their best effect.

Each project has a main entry screen. In some, this screen itself has a
series of links to the individual elements of the project. In others, you
will have to access the main navigation or contents pages by clicking a
link on the main page.

Once you have accessed the main navigation section, you can follow
the instructions there. In projects which have a series of themes, such
as 'Peasant Social Worlds', there is also a contents page which contains
a listing of all the pages in the project. This is useful if you are
researching something specific, rather than attempting to learn as much
as possible about the project.

Within most of the pages there are embedded hypertext links which can
be used to access other relevant parts of the project, for example the
glossary, in-depth explanations of a particular item etc. One way of
using these is to read the whole page first, then go back and access any
links. This way, you will not lose yourself in the site. If you do find
yourself lost, you can either use the 'back' button on your browser or
the navigation bars or buttons to take you back to the main page of the
section you were in.

You can return to the main ERA site at any time by clicking on the bar
at the bottom of your screen which says 'Return to main ERA page'.
This will take you back to the entry screen, where you can select anoth-
er project, find out more about ERA itself or even get some tips on cre-
ating your own anthropology site.


 
  E1

  Element 1 Pitt Rivers: anthropology and
  ethnography in the nineteenth
  century, the history of museums,
  field collection and the
  iconography of shields


  Introduction:
The materials presented in this element fall into six major parts, the
first of which contextualises the work of Lieutenant-General Pitt Rivers
within nineteenth century anthropology as a whole, the second of
which examines one part of his collection (shields drawn from a num-
ber of different societies) in detail, and the third of which looks at his
epistemology of field collection. From here, the element turns to a
study of the development of ethnographic museumology, following
which it explores some of the more abstract representational issues
raised by the study of material culture. All of the element’s sections
reflect upon the life and work of Pitt Rivers, and these themes are
brought together in the final section, which more specifically overviews
his life and works. The element can be used in a number of ways to
enrich the process of learning and understanding various (inter-related)
anthropological issues:

  To clarify points from a lecture
To plan an essay or seminar presentation
As exam preparation
As a tool for examining the career of Pitt Rivers
To gain increased awareness of the processes involved in the
construction of ethnographic knowledge, in particular the way in
which it is constructed from ethnographic museum collections,
and material cultural artifacts more generally.

  Themes:
  The life of Lieutenant-General Pitt Rivers
The history of anthropology and ethnography in nineteenth
century Britain


 
  E1

  The history of anthropology and ethnography at the University of
Oxford
Material culture
Ethnographic museumology
The epistemology of field collecting
Weaponry


  Layout of the element:
The element opens at a ‘front page’ which contains a link to a ‘site
map’ It is suggested that new users of the element follow this link first,
as this brings up an index of all the parts (and their contents) giving an
overview of the entire element.

Users following this link will note that the index of links found on the
‘front page’ are also constantly on view throughout the entire element
(in a window on the left hand side of the browser window) and can be
used to jump to other maximal parts of the element. Once such a link
(to a maximal part) has been selected an index of all the materials con-
tained in that maximal part will be displayed in the right hand window.
A tool bar above the right hand window (which has a brown back-
ground) will also appear, which allows navigation to the (maximal
part’s) various sub-sections.

All selected materials are displayed in the right hand window.

Reading and using the element:
How you read the element will be determined by personal choice and
by your specific needs for reading the material. The element can be
read in a linear manner, but could also be read section by section, each
of which gives a (non-exhaustive) overview of one theme relating to
Pitt Rivers’ work. For users who have no background knowledge of
this nineteenth century anthropologist at all, it may be worth beginning
with the overview of his life and work contained in the final major part
of the element, that which is entitled 'Pitt Rivers and the Pitt Rivers
Museum'.


 
  E1

  Essay and seminar discussion topics:
A number of (inter-related) topics can be examined in relation to the
materials contained in this element. Although by no means exhaustive,
the following list contains some issues which may be worth exploring:

  How influential was the work of Pitt Rivers on the development
  of anthropology in the last century? (In what ways was he a ‘typical’
nineteenth century anthropologist? How did his work affect the course
of the discipline’s development at the University of Oxford and
beyond?)

  In what ways did contemporaneous theories exert an influence on
  Pitt Rivers’ epistemology of field collection? (How did the alternative
methods of collection he adopted [e.g. buying artifacts from auction,
collecting them from field sites, etc.] affect the overall shape of his
collection? How satisfactory was his approach to artifact collection?)

  Why did Pitt Rivers collect ‘military’ artifacts (such as shields)?
  (What can such objects tell us about the societies from which they
derive? Or about mankind as a whole?)

  How may anthropological knowledge be constructed from the
  examination of museum collections? (Why do different museums dis-
play such collections in different ways? In what different ways has the
Pitt Rivers collection been displayed?)

  How and why have anthropological approaches to the study of
  material culture changed since Pitt Rivers’ time? (Will such studies
continue to have relevance for the discipline in the future?)


 
  E1

  Web sites:
The bibliography (at the end of the element) contains a comprehensive
listing of sources relating to the various themes (Pitt Rivers, museumol-
ogy, military artifacts etc.) covered in this element. Students with a par-
ticular interest in this topic, and more generally in the issues pertaining
to museum ethnography, may wish to visit the following (related) web
sites:

Links to the web sites of all the museums at the University of Oxford
(including the Pitt Rivers) at: http://www.ox.ac.uk/museums.html

The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, The University
of Harvard at: http://www.peabody.harvard.edu/

Museum of Anthropology at Wake Forest University at:
http://www.wfu.edu/Academic-departments/Anthropology/museum/
index.html

The University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology at:
http://www.umma.lsa.umich.edu/umma.html

The Hunterian Museum University of Glasgow at:
http://www.gla.ac.uk/Museum/

SCRAN (resource base of Scottish material culture and human history)
a: http://www.scran.ac.uk/

University of Cambridge Museum of Archaeology & Anthropology at:
http://cumaa.archanth.cam.ac.uk/museum.htm


 
  E2

  Element 2 Peasant Social Worlds
  and their Transformation


  Introduction:
This element can be used in a number of ways to enrich our learning
and understanding of anthropology:

  To plan an essay or seminar presentation
To create essay topics or topics for discussion in seminars
To clarify points in a lecture
As exam preparation
To gain increased awareness of the process of ethnographic
research
As a tool in comparative studies
To study & learn about anthropological field methods
To experience cultures in a more direct way through visual
material & ethnographic accounts

  Reading & using the element:
How you read the element will be determined by personal choice and
by your specific needs for reading the material. Here are a few ways
you may approach the texts depending on the context of study:

Linear readingIf you are preparing for a seminar or essay you may
want to begin reading the text from the Introduction through to ‘Theory
& debates’ which contains options to look at the case studies or refer to
the History section. In this way you go through all the main issues as
you would when reading a book or article. This is more time consum-
ing than reading selected topics but it provides all the salient informa-
tion which you would need at the beginning stages of essay preparation
i.e. when you have not yet read the essential readings.


 
  E2

  Text-based searchesThis option can be used to search the bibliography
for relevant texts to include in a bibliography, or to use as additional
reading material which may not appear on your course reading lists. It
may also be useful in searching through the text to clarify points you
may not have understood fully in a lecture, for example you could use
the search facility to enter keywords which are central to the arguments
as presented in a lecture. This could also be useful once the preparatory
work for an essay has been done, to check or cross-check that you have
grasped fully the concepts being used. Searching the text by themes
using this search option provides a list of sites where the themes
appear, so it can be a quick way to search through the text for relevant
material. ***This facility is not available on the CD.***

  Reading by topics If you have already reviewed the theoretical debates
  but need ethnographic examples, you could jump to Case Studies. This
may be useful if you need examples to substantiate theoretical argu-
ments put forward. This way of reading is more focused on specific
areas which you know are needed to complete a piece of work. It is
useful once you are already aware of the main points and arguments of
a particular topic as you will be able to fill in the gaps of your knowl-
edge. Alternatively, you can begin with the last page
(http://nt2.ec.man.ac.uk/multimedia/questions.htm) which raises the
questions with which this text is concerned; to get a general idea of
some of the focal points in the text, and then read the sections. In other
words, you could use this as guidance on what to read in the element,
keeping the questions in mind as you go through the text for a more
focused read.

Themes:
  South American Ethnography
Economic Anthropology
Development Studies
Ethnicity & Nationalism
Issues of Land rights
Women's position


 
  E2

  Peasant Agriculture
Kinship
Field Methods
Shamanism
Ethnography

  Essays/seminars/discussion:
  Drawing on evidence from the 2 case studies compare the differ-
  ent methods and styles of ethnographic representation and analysis.

  What field methods are being used? How is the data represented
  and in what ways does this influence our understanding of the texts?
How does the author’s presence influence our perceptions of the
societies?

  How does anthropology seek to understand contemporary social
  processes? Use John Gledhill’s Mexican Case study to discuss this.

  ‘Underdevelopment’ is not a state (of backwardness and lack of
  modernisation) but a process: a process of distorted socioeconomic
change which reflects fundamental structural inequalities in the world
economy. Discuss.

  What are peasants today? Are the classical models of ‘peasant
  society’ and ‘peasant economy’ adequate tools of analysis today? Have
modern lifestyles made it impossible to make a clear distinction
between ‘urban’ and ‘rural’ society? Beyond the Classical Debates -
The Changing Character of the Peasantry - http://nt2.ec.man.ac.uk/mul-
timedia/theory12.htm.
***This page reiterates the main questions put forward in the
Introduction, having now explored the classic theories and debates on
peasant agriculture.***

For essay topics see also last page at: http://nt2.ec.man.ac.uk/multime-
dia/questions.htm - Some questions and a note on Method.


 
  E3

  Element 3 ‘Venda Girls’ Initiation’:
  John Blacking



  Introduction:
This element contains a number of articles and collections of video and
songs based on Blacking’s work on the three phases of initiation for
Venda girls: vhusha, tshikanda and domba, which he documented dur-
ing two years of fieldwork in the late 1950’s. Throughout his life
Blacking drew upon his original research to formulate many of his
ideas about the crucial role of music and dance in human society. He
provides us with detailed ethnographic descriptions of these institutions
and of the expressive repertoire used in them. The aim of this project is
not so much to outline the way in which the Venda material marked
John Blacking's work as it is to re-present his data on initiation schools
in the spirit in which it was originally published: as an invitation for
further analytical readings. This element can be used in a number of
ways:

  To clarify points from a lecture
To plan an essay or seminar presentation
As exam preparation
As a tool for comparative ethnographic studies
To gain increased awareness of the processes involved in the
construction of ethnographic knowledge, in particular the way in
which anthropological accounts are constructed from field notes

  Themes:
  Anthropology of the body
Visual anthropology
Ethnomusicology
Myth analysis
Analysis of symbols
Field methods/methodology


 
  E3

  Reading and Using the element:
How you read the element will be determined by personal choice and
by your specific needs for reading the material. Here are a few ways
you may can approach the texts depending on the context of study:


Reading by topicThat is, if you are preparing a discussion on a specific
issue such as ethnomusicology, it is a good idea to begin by going to
the ‘Venda music’ section which introduces the reader to venda music
and some ethnomusicology issues. Similarly, if preparation has already
been done on the subjects of ritual performance and/or the body, the
reader could begin by going straight to the ‘video clips’ section, to
view in practice, the theoretical arguments surrounding these issues. In
other words, this way of selected reading is useful if you have already
reviewed the theoretical debates surrounding these issues but require
further examples, clarification or expansion of a particular topic.

  Linear reading To begin a study of Venda society, ethnomusicology,
  ritual, etc. the reader could start with the introduction and continue
through the element in much the same way as reading a book. This
would ensure that all of the major themes and important issues were
included in the preparatory stages of an essay plan/seminar discussion.
In this way you go through all the main issues as you would when
reading a book or article. This is more time consuming than reading
selected topics but it provides all the salient information which you
would need at the beginning stages of essay preparation i.e. when you
have not yet read the essential readings.

Essays/seminars/discussion:
A number of (inter-related) topics can be examined in relation to the
materials contained in this element. Although by no means exhaustive,
the following list contains some issues which may be worth exploring:


 
  E3

  In what ways does the body become ascribed with social meaning
  and/or identity in the context of Venda girls’ initiation rites?

  What use are video/pictorial data for understanding social phe-
  nomena? Can they be used as ‘stand alone’ evidence or do they need to
be contextualised?

  Ethnomusicologists have suggested that the analytical category of
  ‘music’ is ethnocentrically biased.

Suggested further reading:
In addition to the above mentioned themes it is a good idea to view
  Element 8 which focuses on Venda divination systems as well as those
  practised by the Mambila. This would provide more detail on Venda
society in general thus expanding our knowledge of Venda culture.

Initiation
Heald, S. 1999. Manhood and morality: sex, violence and ritual in
  Gisu society. London: Routledge.
  La Fontaine, J. S. Initiation. Middlesex: Penguin Books.
Talle, A. 1993. ‘Transforming women into ‘pure’ agnates: aspects of
  female infibulation in Somalia’. In Carved flesh, cast selves:
  gendered symbols and social practices (eds) V. Broch-due, I.
  Rudie & T. Bleie. Oxford: Berg.
  Richards, A. I. 1956. Chisungu: a girls’ initiation ceremony among the
  Bemba of Northern Rhodesia. London: Faber & Faber.
  van Gennep, A. 1960 [1909]. The rites of passage. London: Routledge
  and Kegan Paul.

  The body
Dieterlen, G. & Y. Cisse. 1972. Les fondements de la societe
  d’initiation du Komo. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
  Douglas, M. T. 1973 [1970]. Natural symbols: explorations in
  cosmology (2nd edition). London: Barrie & Jenkins.
  Jackson, M. 1981. ‘Knowledge of the body’. In Man(N.S.) 18 327-345


 
  E3

  Mauss, M. 1935. ‘Les techniques du corps’. In Journal de psychanalyse
  32 (reprinted in [1950]Sociologie et anthropologie(ed.) Claude
Levi-Strauss. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France).
  Strathern, M. 1993. ‘Making incomplete’. In Carved flesh, cast selves:
  gendered symbols and social practices (eds) V. Broch-due, I.
  Rudie & T. Bleie. Oxford: Berg.

  Visual Anthropology
Banks, M. & H. Morphy. 1997. Rethinking visual anthropology.
  London: Yale University Press.
  Collier, J. 1967. Visual anthropology: photography as a research
  method. London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
  Crawford, P. I. & D. Turton (eds) 1992. Film as ethnography.
  Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  Edwards, E. (ed.) 1992. Anthropology and photography, 1860-1920.
  London: Yale University Press in association with the Royal
Anthropological Institute.
  Hockings, P. 1995. Principles of visual anthropology(2nd edition).
  New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

  Ethnomusicology
Blacking, J. 1973. How musical is man?London: Faber.
Koskoff, E. (ed.) 1989. Women and music in cross-cultural perspective.
  Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
  Lomax, A. 1968. Folk song style and culture. Washington DC:
  American Association for the Advancement of Science.
  Merriam, A. 1964. The Anthropology of music.Evanston, IL:
  Northwestern University Press.
  Rouget, G. 1985. Music and trance: a theory of the relations between
  music and possession. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  (See also the regional discographies contained in each issue)


 
  E4

  Element 4 Working Notes on the Kingdom of
  Bum: identity and ethnicity and
  colonial ethnography


  Introduction:
This element is concerned with the region of West-central Africa, the
Cameroon Grassfields. It contains a wide variety of ethnographic mate-
rials including Sally Chilver’s field diary and the results of collabora-
tive fieldwork undertaken by Chilver and Kaberry. This section pro-
vides an ethnographic overview of the region and remains, to date, the
starting point for any ethnographic research in the Grassfields.
Information on the Kingdom of Bum appears in a section on 'Traditions
of Migration, Settlement and State Formation' and also in 'Social and
Political Institutions: Selected Examples'. The ethnographic materials
contained in the collection reflect very much on issues to do with polit-
ical and ritual hierarchies and the construction of local identity. This
methodologically broad approach to the Grassfields explicitly includes
the views of explorers, missionaries and colonial administrators. This
element can be used in a number of ways:

  To clarify points from a lecture
To plan an essay or seminar presentation
As exam preparation
As a tool for comparative ethnographic studies
To gain increased awareness of the processes involved in the
construction of ethnographic knowledge, in particular the way in
which anthropological accounts are constructed from field notes

  Themes:
  African Societies
History of Anthropology
Identity/Ethnicity
Methodology
Field Methods
Ethnographic styles/representation


 
  E4

  Reading and Using the element:
How you read the element will be determined by personal choice and
by your specific needs for reading the material. This element however
contains a guide and suggestions on reading through the text in the sec-
tion entitled ‘How to use these pages’. You can access this section from
the starter page at: http://sapir.ukc.ac.uk/OBU/. It is recommended that
you read through the first three days of the field diary of Sally Chilver.
It is further strongly suggested that you read these diary pages together
with the published accounts as a means of coming to terms initially
with the detailed ethnographic data.

The diary pages have been further linked to a set of commentaries,
notes, questions and exercises.

Essay and seminar discussion topics:
A number of (inter-related) topics can be examined in relation to the
materials contained in this element. Although by no means exhaustive,
the following list contains some issues which may be worth exploring:

  How do ethnographers differ from missionary or travel writers?
  Using Chilver and Kaberry’s published account and the early mission-
ary reports, discuss.

  How and why have anthropologists tried to incorporate ‘native
  terms’ in their accounts? (Are anthropological analyses enriched by
such inclusions? What are the problems involved in translating native
categories into those of the anthropologist and her audience?)

  What is the place of field notes in the anthropological enterprise?
  What is the relationship between field notes and finished monographs?
Compare the field notes of Chilver and Kaberry and their contributions
to the final account?

  Time depth here, against synchronicity of ‘ethnographic present’?

Identity/ethnicity: oundaries, kinship links, trade routes,
  language, politics of naming, historicity, etc?


 
  E4

  Further reading/Web sites:
http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/countries/Came.html (Ethnologue:
Linguistic database of all Cameroonian languages)

http://www.agora.stm.it/politic/cameroon.htm (Links to sites containing
information on the politics of Cameroon)

http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Fdtl/Rehf/ (Archival sources from Farnham
Rehfisch's work on the Mambila (1953): Writing the Mambila)


 
  E5

  Element 5 The Ascoli Project: a Puglian
  town and its hinterland


  Introduction:
This project examines changes in kinship and family forms and in mar-
riage and inheritance strategies during the period 1700-1990 in Ascoli
Satriano, a small ‘city’ in southern Italy. The project seeks to offer a
new synthesis of historical and anthropological materials, using a com-
bination of archival material and ethnographic fieldwork while explor-
  ing the main documentary research resources available to historically-
  inclined anthropologists. By focusing on the forms, time-spread, limita-
tions and circumstances of production of these sources, it calls for a
more critical analysis of greater time depth than is commonly found in
existing historical-anthropological studies of south Italy. It raises issues
concerned with the problems in employing historical materials i.e. in
understanding the context and methods of their creation for example.
This element can be used in a number of ways:

  To clarify points from a lecture
To plan an essay or seminar presentation
As exam preparation
To gain increased awareness of the processes involved in the
construction of ethnographic knowledge, in particular the way in
which anthropological accounts are constructed from field notes

  Themes:
  European Anthropology
Historical Anthropology
Kinship, Family Structure & Inheritance
Peasant Agriculture
Archival Research
Methodology


 
  E5

  Reading and Using the element:
How you read the element will be determined by personal choice and
by your specific needs for reading the material. Each unit within this
element can be read as a self-contained unit. Check the unit index/table
of contents for what is available within each section. Below is a brief
guide to the choice of topic one could select within each unit:

Archival recordsUnit One:  (See the unit index to select a section of
the unit). This unit seeks to illustrate the range of information such
documents contain and the ways they can be used in both family and
wider kinship reconstruction. It is a good idea to begin with the section
'Find out about the documents' which explains what the records are and
how they can be used. This provides a useful introduction to the use of
archival sources. 'Read the paper' contains an article which examines
kinship and residence patterns in 18th & 20th century Ascoli.

Research & archival materialUnit Two:This unit focuses on changes
over time in inheritance, marriage and dowry patterns seeking to illus-
trate how notarial contracts can be used to document these processes.
This provides a useful indication of the process of research, from initial
reading of archival sources to data analysis to the written article.

Visual representationUnit Three: This section of the element includes
maps from 16th & 18th century and contemporary photographs of the
region which together provide an account of the history of the region
and its agricultural past. Unit four - similarly uses visual material to
complete the narrative account of Ascoli’s urban history over the last
three centuries. Of particular interest is the section on the procession
celebrating a saint’s day. Photographs of the procession stand alongside
a description of the event giving the reader a clearer picture and feel for
the town and its culture.


 
  E5

  Essays/seminars/discussion:
A number of (inter-related) topics can be examined in relation to the
materials contained in this element. Although by no means exhaustive,
the following list contains some issues which may be worth exploring:

  What are the difficulties in using historical sources in research?

An historical perspective is important to anthropological
scholarship. Discuss

  ***Searches of the database are available online only, not on the CD
version.***


 
  E6

  Element 6 Ancestors in Africa: selected
  readings and Mambila
  case material


  Introduction:
The materials presented in this element fall into three parts, the first of
which presents a number of the ‘classic’ theoretical discussions of
African ancestor beliefs, the second of which includes a series of corre-
spondence concerning the subject which appeared in the Journal of the
  Royal Anthropological Institute (then called Man) and the third of
  which includes both published accounts and field note data of a single
case study (that of the Mambila of Cameroon). The element can be
used in a number of ways to enrich the process of learning and under-
standing anthropological issues:

  To clarify points from a lecture
To plan an essay or seminar presentation
As exam preparation
As a tool for comparative ethnographic studies
To gain increased awareness of the processes involved in the
construction of ethnographic knowledge, in particular the way in
which anthropological accounts are constructed from fieldnotes

  Reading and using the element:
How you read the element will be determined by personal choice and
by your specific needs for reading the material. Here are a few suggest-
ed ways you can approach the texts, depending on the context of study:

A linear reading of the documents If you are preparing for an essay or
seminar on this topic, you may wish to start with Gluckman’s classic
account of African ancestor beliefs, which contextualises them within
wider systems of beliefs in the dead. Gluckman’s sociological orienta-
tion here serves to contextualise the approach to the subject adopted by
Fortes and Calhoun, in particular, who both argue that the peculiar sta-


 
  E6

  tus of authority held by ancestors derives from their relationship with
corporate lineage groupings. It was this type of understanding that
Kopytoff (who approached the topic from a more ‘culturological’ per-
spective) took issue with, as can be seen. In fact the Man  debate (sec-
tion two) resulted largely from theorists’ alternatively defending or
attacking Kopytoff’s criticisms, in this regard.

Reading the sections as self-contained units The second and third sec-
tions of the element, in particular, can be read as self contained units.
The former of these provides an opportunity for you to examine a com-
plete academic debate, as it was played out over two years of Man,
which enables you to develop an understanding of the ways in which
anthropological theories are constructed and received by other acade-
mics. The latter enables you to undertake a detailed study of a single
ethnographic case, which can be approached through both published
sources and the fieldnotes from which these derive (one of the advan-
tages of electronically published documents is that they allow the inclu-
sion of a greater volume of fieldnote materials than would be possible
with traditional paper publishing). This allows you to examine the part
fieldnotes play in the construction of ethnographic knowledge.

Moving back and forth between different types of sourcesThe electron-
ic format of this element enables greater ease of movement between
different sections of material. In relation to the Mambila section, in par-
ticular, this allows you to move freely between this case study and the
wider theoretical accounts of the previous two sections (using a combi-
nation of the embedded links in the left hand contents section, and the
‘back’ key on the browser). This enables you to examine the relation-
ship between anthropologists’ detailed studies of single societies, and
their more general theoretical pronouncements.

Essay and seminar discussion topics:
A number of (inter-related) topics can be examined in relation to the
materials contained in this element. Although by no means exhaustive,
the following list contains some issues which may be worth exploring:


 
  E6

  How are systems of ancestors best understood? (Does their signif-
  icance derive from their unique positioning within the social structure
of African societies, or simply from the fact that they are the ‘eldest
elders’?)

  How may we place ancestors beliefs within wider African cosmo-
  logical systems? (What distinguishes them from other types of ‘spirits’?
Why do some African societies have ‘cults’ to both the ancestors and
other types of dead?)

  How and why have anthropologists tried to incorporate ‘native
  terms’ in their accounts? (Are anthropological analyses enriched by
such inclusions? What are the problems involved in translating native
categories into those of the anthropologist and her audience?)

  How is anthropological knowledge constructed? (Why do anthro-
  pologists place such high value on the close examination of single soci-
eties? What are the problems involved when trying to apply wider
anthropological theories to such singular studies?)

  What is the place of fieldnotes in the anthropological enterprise?
  (Why have some ethnographers in recent years included fieldnotes in
their monographs? Is there a qualitative difference between the type of
ethnographic information contained in fieldnote data and that contained
in published accounts? What is the relationship between fieldnotes and
finished monographs?)

Further reading:
Although extremely comprehensive, the reading materials contained in
this element are in no way exhaustive. Students with a particular inter-
est in this topic, and the issues it raises, may also wish to consult these
  additional sources as well as viewing Element 4 ‘Working Notes on
  the Kingdom of Bum: identity and ethnicity and colonial ethnography’
which can be used as complementary material to that contained in this
element:


 
  E6

  Bradbury, R. 1966. ‘Fathers, elders and ghosts in Edo religion.’ In
  Anthropological approaches to the study of religion(ed.) Michael
  Banton. London: Tavistock Publications. (An examination of the
  relationship between ancestors and other spirits within an African
cosmological system).
  Goody, J. 1962. Death, property and the ancestors: a study of the
  mortuary customs of the LoDagaa of West Africa.London:
Tavistock Publications. (A classic ethnographic account of
ancestor worship among an African people)
  McCall, J. C. 1995. ‘Rethinking ancestors in Africa’. In Africa65 (2),
  256-270. (An application of recent theoretical thinking in
anthropology to the subject)
  Sanjek, R. (ed.) 1990. Fieldnotes: the makings of anthropology. Ithaca:
  Cornell University Press. (A comprehensive collection exploring
the place of field notes in the anthropological enterprise)


 
  E7

  Element 7 Mambila Riddles


  Introduction:
This element provides an interactive introduction to Mambila riddles as
well as providing a more general anthropological context to the study
of riddles. The article on the function of riddles by Ian Hamnet sug-
gests that riddles and riddling may illuminate some of the principles
that underlie classification in social action and cognition generally and
can, in particular, indicate the role that ambiguities play in the classifi-
catory process. This research is situated in more recent anthropological
scholarship which has brought classification into the foreground and
has aroused an awareness of related problems concerning the mecha-
nisms where by conceptual categories are set up, preserved and mediat-
ed. Questions have been either explicitly or implicitly raised as to the
role of ambiguous or interstitial items in classificatory schemes; they
can be seen as the objects of interdiction (taboo) and as indispensable
means for the continued functioning of society.

***The interactive ‘riddle machine’ requires an online connection.***

Themes:
  African societies
Sociolinguistics
Anthropological study of riddles

  Using the element in teaching:
This material could be read in conjunction with the other elements
dealing with this Cameroonian people for a more comprehensive study
of the Mambila (cf Elements 6, 7, & 9). It could be used to comple-
ment (rather than replace) one week’s seminar reading for any course
on African societies or sociolinguistics.


 
  E7

  Layout of element:
There are three sections to this element, each can be accessed via the
links on the main page:

  An article first published in Man(n.s.) by Ian Hamnet on the
  function of riddles, including a list of references.

  Bibliography of anthropological studies of riddles.

  Ask me a riddle containing a collection of riddles & the riddle machine.
  Instructions on how to use the riddle machine are listed on the main
page of the element. ***This requires an online
connection.***

The reader can return to the main page at the end of each section by
clicking on the ‘back’ button of the browser.


 
  E8

  Element 8 Mambila Divination


  Introduction:
This element introduces users to the practicalities of divination
systems, and contains two interactive simulations (the 'divining dice'
and 'Mambila spider divination'). After a brief introduction, which
includes several previously published articles on this topic, users are
able to try their own hand at Mambila divination systems, and thereby
gain a feel for the processes involved in the formulation of oracular
interpretations. This element, as well as providing an additional source
of information on the Mambila (complementary to the other elements
  dealing with this Cameroonian people; cf. Elements 6, 7and 9) also
  exploits the interactive possibilities of the hypertext format in an innov-
ative way. The element would not so much replace the traditional semi-
nar reading list, as act as a complementary source of material for it,
allowing readers who are perhaps grappling with the ideas contained in
  such classic works as Evans-Pritchard’s Witchcraft, oracles and magic
  among the Azande (1937) for example to test these ideas against real
  (simulated) instances of divination.

Themes:
  African Societies
Ritual and Religion
Rationality

  Using the interactive parts of the element:
The Divining Dice:
***This part of the element may not work with some older versions of
Internet Explorer and Netscape, as it requires Java to be enabled***

The top of the screen shows a picture of the four ‘divining dice’ the
Venda use for purposes of divination (representing, from left to right -
Vhami [old man], Tshilume [young man], Twalima [old woman],
Lumwe [young woman]). Clicking on this picture will ‘activate’ the


 
  E8

  simulation, randomly producing one of the 16 possible combinations of
the dice (as determined by the number [and order] of dice facing
upwards).

You can view the interpretations diviners would give to each of these
combinations in the box below the picture. These are given in the ver-
nacular, but also include ‘literal’ translations. Below this you are also
presented with Stayt’s own interpretations of these diagnoses, which
explain the meaning of the diviners’ pronouncements.

Mambila Spider Divination:
***This part of the element may not work with some older versions of
Internet Explorer and Netscape, as it requires Java to be enabled.***

Following this link leads you to a page which outlines the processes
involved in Mambila spider divinations, and the basic principles
involved in their interpretation. You should read this page as an intro-
duction to the simulation which follows (which can be accessed by
following the link 'Go to the Spider Divination Simulation' at the end)
and which allows them to apply these principles for themselves in a
real (simulated) spider divination.

***To make the simulation work on older versions of Internet Explorer
or Netscape users may have to ‘refresh’ the screen, by ‘resizing’ the
entire browser window (by clicking on its bottom right corner) after
every command sent to the simulation (i.e. every time one of its buttons
is selected). This is necessary because a number of the ‘buttons’ may
disappear from view after one has been ‘pressed’. These will return to
view once the browser window is resized.***

To use the simulation, you must first press the 'Spider' button on the
bottom left hand corner of the screen. This acts to cover the pot with
the lid. From here, the 'Show' button will uncover the pot to reveal the
(random) formation of leaves upon which the divination can be carried
out. To conduct another ‘divination’, you should press these same


 
  E8

  buttons again, in the same order. To return to the starting point (i.e. an
uncovered pot with no leaves in it) you should select the 'Reset' button.

***The eight ‘buttons’ on the bottom left hand side of the simulation
picture will not work on older versions of Internet Explorer and
Netscape, and should be ignored by users. In addition, at this time the
'Log' button is not yet activated, and therefore should not be used***

Essay and seminar discussion topics:
This element can be used to complement the study of a number of
anthropological themes, and will therefore be of use in preparing for
seminar presentations and essays. The element has a bearing, for
example, on all of the following topics:

  African societies In what ways are Mambila divination systems typical
  of those found throughout the African continent?

  Ritual and religion To what extent can divinations be termed ‘rituals’
  (is it meaningful to analytically distinguish them from ‘secular’ activi-
ties)?

  Rationality What similarities/differences exist between such divinations
  and ‘rational’ western medical diagnoses?

  Discourse analysis What can the study of divination dialogues tell us
  about indigenous power relations and issues concerning the ‘control’ of
meaning?

  Ethnomethodology What models of knowledge do the actors them-
  selves bring to the experience of divination?


 
  E8

  Further reading:
For those interested in the topic of divination (or related issues) the ele-
ment’s front page includes links to a comprehensive bibliography
(deriving from the Royal Anthropological Institute’s [RAI]
'Anthropological Index Online') and also a link to the results of an
internet search on ‘divination’ (which gives details of a number of
related web sites).

It would also be a good idea to view Element 3which focuses on
Blacking’s work on the Venda. This would provide a more detailed
account of Venda society relevant to the context of Venda divinations as
detailed in this element.

An additional reference relevant to this material is a work entitled: The
  Bavenda by Hugh A. Stayt ; with an introduction by A.W. Hoernle.
  London : Oxford University Press, 1931


 
  E9

  Element 9 The work of Farnham Rehfisch
  and other archival sources
  on the Mambila


  Introduction:
This element comprises a collection of historical, ethnographic and
colonial material on the Mambila and provides an opportunity for criti-
cal reading of such accounts as well as showing the importance of his-
torical sources to contemporary scholarship. The colonial officers were
concerned with patterns of political power and allegiance mainly
because they wanted to simplify the process of tax collection; in the
early 1950’s when Rehfisch was studying, patterns of power and the
organisation of social relationships were the central concerns. By the
time Zeitlyn began his studies in Cambridge in the 1980’s the role of
language and religion had gained far greater prominence. The collec-
tion thus allows the reader to trace the changing interests of the writers
and to place in an historical context the issues with which this study is
concerned. The element can be used in a number of ways to enrich the
process of learning and understanding anthropological issues:

  To clarify points from a lecture
To plan an essay or seminar presentation
As exam preparation
As a tool for comparative ethnographic studies
To gain increased awareness of the processes involved in the
construction of ethnographic knowledge, in particular the way in
which anthropological accounts are constructed from fieldnotes

  Themes:
  African societies
History of anthropology
Critical reading
Comparative ethnography
Methodology


 
  E9

  Reading and using the element:
There are essentially three different types of material in this element.
How you read the element will be determined by personal choice and
by your specific needs for reading the material:

Some early documentary sources on Mambilaaccessed by its link on
the ‘main element page’ contains archival material, colonial reports,
correspondence etc.

Rehfisch’s published accountsaccessed by clicking on the links towards
the end of the ‘main element page’.

  Mambila fieldnotes containing Rehfisch’s unpublished work, accessed
  by the links at the bottom of the main page. This contains fieldnotes,
photographs taken in the field & some draft papers.

The reader can return from these links to the main element page using
the ‘back’ button on the browser. An additional link to other sources on
the Mambila can be accessed by clicking on the link: The Virtual
  Institute of Mambila Studies at the end of the ‘main element page’.

  Essay and seminar discussion topics:
A number of (inter-related) topics can be examined in relation to the
materials contained in this element. Although by no means exhaustive,
the following list contains some issues which may be worth exploring:

  What is the place of fieldnotes in the anthropological enterprise?
  (Why have some ethnographers in recent years included fieldnotes in
their monographs? Is there a qualitative difference between the type of
ethnographic information contained in fieldnote data and that contained
in published accounts? What is the relationship between fieldnotes and
finished monographs?)

  How do ethnographers’ writings differ from colonial
  administration reports/records?


 
  E9

  What is meant by the statement 'The essential challenge posed by
  all texts to any serious reader is how to read the bias'? Discuss with ref-
erence to the earlier & later documents on the Mambila.

  What is the role of historical sources to a contemporary study of
  the Mambila?

***The material in this element could be read in conjunction with the
other elements dealing with Cameroonian people for a more compre-
hensive study of the Mambila (cf Elements 4, 6, 7, & 9).***


 
  E10

  Element 10 Ritual spirit possession in the
  Mina Nago of Northern Brazil



  Introduction:
This element is an interactive multimedia ethnography of religious per-
formance in the Tambor de Mina of Northern Brazil. Integrating audio-
visual and textual material in an interactive way, it moves away from
‘traditional’ modes of ethnographic representation, such as, for exam-
ple, documentary cinema. The introduction provides the background
ethnographic context of the Mina Nago people, after which the element
explores in detail a single case of ritual spirit possession. The element
can be used to complement your reading of text based sources, and in
this way will enrich the process of learning and understanding anthro-
pological issues. It will be of use when you are, for example, trying to
clarify points from a lecture, plan an essay or seminar presentation, or
revise for an exam.


Themes:
  Brazilian ethnography
Brazilian cosmology
Spirit possession
Concepts of the person
Ethnographic representation

  Essay and seminar discussion topics:
A number of (inter-related) topics can be examined in relation to the
case study contained in this element. Although by no means exhaustive,
the following list contains some issues which may be worth exploring:

  What is spirit possession? (How does it operate, for example, to
  maintain social structure? What meaning does it have for Brazilian
people?)


 
  E10

  How are spirit possession beliefs located within wider cosmologi-
  cal systems? (What is the difference, for example, between possession
rituals and other types of ‘religious’ performance?)

  What advantages do multimedia documents have over purely tex-
  tual ones for purposes of ethnographic representation? (How do they
differ, in addition, from documentary films? What role will they play in
anthropology in the future?)

Layout of the element:
As stated above, the element falls into three parts, which can be
accessed through clicking on the pictures of the ‘main’ page:

The introduction The Tambor de Mina public ceremonies. This section
is divided into five pages, which can be navigated using the arrow key
at the bottom of the picture, which remains present on all screens. In
addition, in the bottom left-hand corner of all screens are links back to
the ‘main’ page, as well as links to a glossary search (this link is called
‘abc’) and a bibliography search (entitled ‘biblio’).

Opening song sequence and ritual features This section is modelled
around a section of video, and textual materials are all linked into this.
In the bottom left-hand corner of the screen here, in addition to the
‘main’, ‘abc’ and ‘biblio’ links (see above) is a link entitled ‘help’.
New users of the element must click this link and read the information
it brings up, as this information demonstrates how to use the element in
an interactive way, in particular explaining how to bring up supplemen-
tary information from the video, (using the ‘green rectangles’).

  Manifestation of the spiritual entities The layout of this part of the ele-
  ment is identical to that of the previous section (above).

Further reading:
The element’s bibliography contains a comprehensive listing of sources
relevant to the study of this topic (and related issues).


 
  E11

  Element 11Representing Kinship



  Introduction:
As well as several written sections concerning the representational
issues involved in the modelling of kinship systems, this element
includes two interactive parts. The first of these, the 'kinship editor',
allows you to model your own kinship genealogies. Following its sim-
ple command instructions, you may wish to construct your own ‘family
tree’, or that of a famous kin group, such as the royal family. This
allows you to examine the processes involved in the construction of
such diagrams, and also to think about some of the conceptual issues
involved. You may, for example, wish to consider some of the follow-
ing questions:

  What is meant by the term ‘sibling ship’ (does it refer only to
  ‘biological’ brothers and sisters)?

  Why do different cultural groups have alternative kinship
  terminologies?

  How applicable is the term ‘marriage’ to unions between
  same-sex individuals?

  Or broader questions, such as:

  Why have anthropologists ‘traditionally’ used genealogical charts
  to map relations within kinship groups?

  Why have some anthropologists recently condemned such repre-
  sentational devices as ‘ethnocentric’?

  What alternative methods of representation can you think of?


 
  E11

  Suggestions:
Before you use the programme it is strongly suggested that you read
the section entitled Learning Kinship with with Kinship Editor - this
introductory page to the kinship element explains why kinship is
important to anthropological research as well as highlighting some of
the questions and issues concerned with anthropological research based
on kinship. The programme allows any two individuals to be linked in
a 'union'. Thus we can explore the variants on ‘marriage’ unions with
other unions and the implications this has for the significance society
gives to relationships. For example, how do 'adulterous' relationships
differ from those resulting from divorce and remarriage? Or same sex
unions. Are these significantly different from mixed-sex ones?
Consider too the case for adoption - under British law it is entirely
legal for two full siblings who have been adopted by different families
to wed and have children. What can such permutations and variations
on kinship patterns tell us about the social construction of marriage,
family and kin relationships? The issues raised in this introduction
could be used as the basis for seminar discussions and essay topics.
Once you have discussed and thought about these issues you can con-
struct your own family genealogy and that of another family group (for
example, the royal family) and contrast the two systems.

The second part of the element, the Kinship in Prolog, introduces you
to the modelling abilities of computer based programs, and allows you
to examine the construction of kin categories (such as son, mother etc.)
in terms of the classificatory distinctions (e.g. those based on sex and
generation etc.) that define them. The element complements the type of
reading material used on courses concerned with the study of kinship,
and will therefore be of use to you when preparing for essay or seminar
presentations, or when revising for exams.


 
  E11

  Layout of the element:
***The interactive parts of the element may not work with some older
versions of Netscape and Internet Explorer, as they require java to be
enabled.***

Kinship editor
The layout of this element is somewhat self-explanatory. It is worth
pointing out, however, that the instructions for using the 'editor' are
included underneath the editor itself, on the same page. Following these
instructions, you can ‘create’ individuals of either sex, and then link
them together in terms of two types of relationship (‘marriage’ and
‘sibling ship’). The editor also allows you to enter biographical infor-
mation (DOB etc.) on each of the individuals in the diagram, and to
manipulate/’move around’ whole nuclear family groups. Using these
simple tools, you are able to create highly complex and detailed models
of kinship groupings.

There are two sections contained within the editor:
  The blue panel at the top of the page This contains boxes where one
  enters information about the people in your kinship model. At present
only the Name, Comment, Birth Year and Death Year fields are opera-
tive. Information can only be entered once you have placed a person
symbol in the white panel.

The white panel This is the middle section of the page and it is where
your kinship diagram is created. By clicking in the blank area of this
panel a menu will appear with a person or marriage link for selection.
This is how to begin drawing your kinship model - by choosing a per-
son or marriage symbol from the menu. Once you have a symbol you
can enter information on the person or marriage in the blue panel
above. This is done by clicking once on the symbol which will turn red.
You can now enter the information.

  ‘Help’ Clicking on the help button at the centre of the blue panel opens
  a new window which contains detailed instructions on how to create


 
  E11

  kinship structures. For example, how to create a sibling relationship or
marriage link between two people, how to move an entire nuclear fami-
ly within the diagram, and how to delete symbols or links where neces-
sary. Before attempting to draw up a diagram you should read these
instructions carefully.

Calculating Kin
This section is divided into six interrelated parts accessed by the
following links:

  Culture and classification: Models and systems This provides an intro-
  duction to the use of models within anthropological research & scholar-
ship. Models are based on systems which we use to understand soci-
eties. One of the responsibilities of the anthropologist is to identify
these systems of reduction and organisation, these indigenous models
of the world and their experience in the world, and to attempt to under-
stand the basis by which these models are constructed.

  Modelling kinship This section explains the importance to anthropolo-
  gists of understanding and analysing kinship terminologies. It deals
with how kinship terminologies are organised through providing a
means of classifying relationships with other people, for every person
in the society, and how genealogical relationships are different from
kinship relationships.

Computers and Kinship A survey of the history of the use by anthro-
pologists of kinship-related computer applications. Anthropologists
have shown considerable interest in the use of computers for analysing
kinship and genealogical data.

Defining conceptual requirements Here we consider defining the con-
ceptual terms to which we shall apply the computer-based analytic pro-
cedures. The conceptual terms must be determined, in whole, by ana-
lytical requirements rather than computing requirements. The structure
and definition of conceptual terms are independent of whether or not a
computer is to be used.


 
  E11

  Specifications: modelling kinship terminologiesUsing English Kinship
Terminology (EKT) as the example it illustrates how to analyse a ter-
minology. For a terminology to be useful there must be a systematic
way to assign kinship names to individuals, e.g. match up genealogical
positions to kinship terms.
Programming our terminologiesProlog is a good computer program-
ming language for dealing with complex structural systems such as that
presented by kinship. The instructions for the ‘Kinship in Prolog’ part
are located above it, again on its page. It is recommended that users of
this latter interactive part first read Fischer’s paper ‘Computer
Representations of Anthropological Knowledge’ as an introductory pas-
sage, which can be accessed through the link ‘paper’ located just above
the engine itself.

Other sites of interest:
Tutorial on Kinship Terminology(Brian Schwimmer)
(An excellent online interactive tutorial session, introducing the basics
of kinship study [especially good for complete beginners.])
at: http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/kintitle.html

Yanomamo Interactive Web Version(Contains much information which
is useful for thinking about the construction of kin diagrams) at:
http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/axfight/prep.html


 
  E12

  Element 12 Computer-based Simulation
  Modelling for Anthropologists



  Introduction:
This element comprises a number of different sections relevant to the
use and study of simulation and knowledge representation in anthropo-
logical research. Simulation is a kind of modelling which is useful for a
wide range of problems and situations. It has applications to both quan-
titative and qualitative problems with either very good data, or very lit-
tle data. It has important implications for disciplines such as social
anthropology which are basically non-experimental, providing a means
of exploring problems which could never be observed to order.
Simulation can be an important tool for the social researcher aware of
its limitations.

Themes:
  Representation
Methodology
Using models
Simulation
Authority

  Reading and Using the element:
The way you read the element will be determined by personal choice
and by the specific needs of the reader. For example:

Each link except for 'Examples' is based on Michael Fischer’s chapter
on Computer-based Simulation and Modelling. These could be read as
an introduction to the issues and theories surrounding simulations &
modelling. This provides a comprehensive overview of the meaning
and use of simulation in anthropology, and is well referenced through-
out the text. Thus suggesting further reading, as well as providing ideas
for essays or seminar discussions.


 
  E12

  Alternatively if the reader is already familiar with these issues and
wants to view an example of a simulation then you could go directly to
the 'Examples' link to view for example: A description of a simulation -
this provides the background to a simulation and is a simulation model
which attempts to describe the particular agricultural land allocation for
the production of sweet potatoes among the Kapauku of W. Irian as
described by L. Pospisil in Kapauku Economyin 1956; similarly A
simulation of foraging and movement by the !Kung (based on R. Lees
paper) provides an example and opportunity to see how a simulation
works. Other examples include two interactive simulations - the 'divin-
ing dice' and 'Mambila spider divination'. Users are able to try their
own hand at Venda and Mambila divination systems, and thereby gain
a feel for the processes involved in the formulation of oracular interpre-
tations.

Essays/seminars/discussion:
  What purpose do models serve for anthropological analysis? In
  your discussion include at least three examples of models.

  Evaluate simulation as a means or aid for anthropological
  research. What is a simulation attempting to represent? What are its
strengths and weaknesses?

  What is the expertise that is represented by an 'expert system'?
  How do expert systems relate to the anthropologist's conception of
knowledge and expertise?

  Discourse analysis - What can the study of divination dialogues
  tell us about indigenous power relations and issues concerning the
‘control’ of meaning?

  Ethnomethodology - What models of knowledge do the actors
  themselves bring to the experience of divination?


 
  E13

  Element 13 A day in the Life ... Somié Village,
  Province de l'Adamaoua, Cameroon
  (April, 1999)


  Introduction:
This element comprises a series of video clips of Somié village,
Cameroon, taken by the ethnographer David Zeitlyn at approximately
one hour intervals, throughout a twelve-hour period. The clips were
shot in three locations - a residential setting, the village square, and a
cross-roads near a dispensary. This element is primarily visual although
it also includes reflections from the ethnographer on the use and tech-
niques employed in the filming, as well as several exercises for stu-
dents to aid their learning of anthropological methods through visual
representations. This element could well be used in conjunction with
the other elements on the Mambila (Elements 6,7,8,9).

This element can be used in a number of ways to enrich our learning
and understanding of anthropology:

  As exam preparation
To gain increased awareness of the process of ethnographic
research
As a tool in comparative studies
To study & learn about anthropological field methods
To experience cultures in a more direct way through visual
material & ethnographic accounts

  Themes:
  Representation
Methodology
Visual anthropology


 
  E13

  Reading & using the element:
The data in this element is presented in two ways:

Short textswhich provide a context to the research and to the village.
Text is both above and below the table containing links to the movie
clips. The section entitled ‘Exercises for students’ could form the basis
of learning with this element as it provides detailed exercises which
cover the main issues and themes pertaining to the element.

Visual material each movie clip can be viewed by clicking on the
selected link within the table. When a link has been activated a small
movie screen will appear and the video may be viewed by clicking on
the ‘play’ button which is located on the left hand side of the tool bar
below each movie screen. Also on this page there are a number of links
to the other video clips (the links shown as hours) as well as the option
of returning to the main page ‘A day in the life...”


Essays/Issues:
There are a number of issues relating to the topics under ‘Themes’
above. These are best represented within the Exercises for Students
section which could be used as the basis for essay topics as well as
seminar discussions.


 
  E14

  Element 14 Forty-five years in two
  Turkish Villages,
  1949-1994


  Introduction:
This element can be used in a number of ways to enrich our learning
and understanding of anthropology:

  To plan an essay or seminar presentation
As exam preparation
To gain increased awareness of the process of ethnographic
research
To study & learn about anthropological field methods
To experience cultures in a more direct way through visual
material & ethnographic accounts

  This element comprises data collected by Prof. Paul Stirling during his
ethnographic research in two Turkish villages between 1949 and 1994.
It is rare for an anthropologist to provide a more-or-less complete
record of their field research. This element therefore is most valuable
as a teaching and learning resource as it provides an example of how
ethnographic research can be presented to encourage greater trans-
parency and depth rather than presenting fragments of data from which
the student must theorise. This element includes field notes, photo-
graphic images, articles, unpublished papers, Stirling’s book Turkish
Villageas well as his Ph.D thesis.

Themes:
  European anthropology
Field methods
Methodology
Peasant societies


 
  E14

  Reading and Using the element:
There are several ways of reading this element depending on personal
choice and the student’s specific requirements. It is advised to begin
with the 'Background' information which provides a context to the
material presented here. Other sections to access, depending on your
reasons for reading the selected materials include:

  Field notes Two sets of field notes are accessible based on Stirling’s
  research in the 1950’s and the 1970’s. It would be interesting to com-
pare the 2 sets to gain an idea of the progression of his field work.
They are also useful when reading his papers and published articles
which will have been based upon these initial field records.

  Photographic data Around one hundred pictures taken in the 1950’s
  and a further hundred pictures taken in the later period of study are pre-
sented here. Students can view these in conjunction with the field notes
to gain a greater understanding of both the changes within the societies
under study as well as how this data contributes to a broader perspec-
tive and understanding of the society.

  Turkish Village Stirling’s book published in 1965. Any student interest-
  ed in research in Turkey will find this invaluable as an ethnographic
resource.

Essays/Seminars/Discussions:
  What is the place of field notes in the anthropological enterprise?
  (Why have some ethnographers in recent years included field notes in
their monographs? Is there a qualitative difference between the type of
ethnographic information contained in field note data and that con-
tained in published accounts? What is the relationship between field
notes and finished monographs?)


 
  E14

  What are peasants today? Are the classical models of ‘peasant
  society and peasant economy adequate tools of analysis today? Have
modern lifestyles made it impossible to make a clear distinction
between ‘urban’ and ‘rural’ society?

  What use is pictorial data for understanding social phenomena?
  Can they be used as ‘stand alone’ evidence or do they need to be con-
textualised?

Web sites:
http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Stirling/MA/
http://sapir.ukc.ac.uk/SLyon/
http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/index.html


 
  E15

  Element 15 The Powell-Cotton Museum
  at Quex Park


  Introduction:
This element is both a display and an account of the Quex House muse-
um established by Major Powell-Cotton, originally to display to the
public his collection of hunted wildlife which had been obtained on his
expeditions to Africa and the Indian sub-continent. As technologies
such as television have come into being, ideas about the presentation of
natural history have changed. It is with this in mind that the authors of
this presentation have viewed Quex Park as a 'museum of a museum'.
This emphasis therefore provides value not only in informing us about
the wildlife and people of Africa but also more significantly, about the
culture of those who established the museum and those who would
have visited in the past. The Powell-Cotton Museum represents an eth-
nological and natural science interpretation from another era. It shows
not only images of Africa, but by its presentation and visual content is
representative of a specific perspective from our own culture. There are
several sections to the element containing archive film material, photo-
graphic presentations, as well as contemporary perspectives on the
museum, its collections and owner via a video interview and commen-
tary by the present assistant curator.


Themes:
  Visual anthropology
Material culture
Ethnographic museumology
Visual anthropology methodology
Archival Research


 
  E15

  Reading and using the element:
How you navigate this element depends on personal choice and on the
specific requirements for viewing the element. There are ten parts to
the element containing a variety of material, from photographic and
movie images to recorded interviews and short texts explaining the
material.

  Suggestions: Begin with the ‘Introduction’ link to get an idea of the
  project and the history of the Powell-Cotton museum. The four links on
the right hand side of the main element page provide a contemporary
context and perspective for the viewer. It is a good idea to view these
links in conjunction with the more visual aspects of the presentation.

Essay and seminar discussion topics:
A number of (inter-related) topics can be examined in relation to the
materials contained in this element. Although by no means exhaustive,
the following list contains some issues which may be worth exploring:

  How may anthropological knowledge be constructed from the
  examination of museum collections? (Why do different museums dis-
play such collections in different ways)?

  What can artifacts tell us about the societies from which they
  derive? Can an examination of such objects tell us anything about
mankind as a whole?

  How have anthropological attitudes towards the study of material
  culture changed since the nineteenth century? What factors account for
this change? Will such studies continue to have relevance for the disci-
pline in the future?

It is suggested to read this element in conjunction with Element 1of
the ERA project.


 
  E15

  Web sites:
Students interested in issues pertaining to museum ethnography may
wish to visit the following (related) web sites:

Links to the web sites of all the museums at the University of Oxford
at: http://www.ox.ac.uk/museums.html

The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, The University
of Harvard at: http://www.peabody.harvard.edu/

The Hunterian Museum University of Glasgow at:
http://www.gla.ac.uk/Museum/

SCRAN (resource base of Scottish material culture and human history)
at: http://www.scran.ac.uk/

University of Cambridge Museum of Archaeology & Anthropology at:
http://cumaa.archanth.cam.ac.uk/museum.html


 


  Working ExampleERA in Action:
  Social Organisation, Economy
  and Development in Pakistan


  This project was not prepared for ERA, but it probably represents one
of the best marriages of research with teaching and learning materials.
Stephen Lyon prepared this site on an ongoing basis while doing active
doctoral research in a village in northern Punjab, Pakistan. As this
Guide goes to press (August 1999) Stephen is still in the field, so there
is more to come! While in the field he will be examining the relation-
ship between social organisation, economy and development in an agri-
cultural community. His website is designed with two goals in mind.
Firstly, to make available some of the field data as it is being collected
- an experiment in 'open' ethnography. Secondly, to encourage users to
comment on ongoing research offering alternate explanations or
examples of their own experiences. Comments on the website from
non-anthropologists as well as anthropologists, and, in particular,
Pakistanis living outside of Pakistan are welcome: a selection of users'
comments are made available periodically.

This project therefore makes it possible for students to see a research
project develop over its full course, not simply a writeup after it is
complete. When Stephen Lyon returns he intends to continue to update
the online site (<http://sapir.ukc.ac.uk/SLyon/index.html>) as he analy-
ses his material and writes his thesis, which should provide some infor-
mative moments, as well as some amusing ones.



   Contents