For the Venda, the crucial difference between speech and song is that the words of a song are recited or sung to a regular metrical pattern (Blacking 1967b:16,155). The rhythm of a song must therefore differ considerably from the spoken rhythm of its words if it is to qualify as a song. Thus(No. 25) is sung.

Ndayo songs are designed to accompany the repetition of symbolic movements or "dance" steps, and consequently there is often little or no relationship between the spoken rhythm of the words and the meter of the songs. This is especially true of songs in which the response contains only vocables such as E, ahee, ee-ya (e.g., Nos. 36, 37, 44, 47). The meter of some ritual songs (1-l4) is, however, more closely related to their speech rhythm. For example, the speech-rhythms of the responses of Numbers 1 and 2 are respectively: and

I can find no consistent relationship between the number of quaver "pulses" or crotchets and dotted crotchets in a meter and the number of the syllables of basic word-phrases. The meters of some songs are indeed almost exact replicas of the rhythm and syllabic length of their word-phrases (e.g., 3 and 20), but other songs with the same meter grow from very different word-phrases (e.g., 5A, 12, 13). There is greater consistency between the length of metrical phrases within which the word-phrases are contained.

Thus the general conclusion is that the length of word-phrases is not a relevant factor in the choice of meter. A pattern of words may suggest an appropriate meter, but more important factors in the composition of songs are the creation of total metrical patterns and the balance of metrical and tonal phrases within them.

Venda melodies are created by building up rhythmic structures within the larger tonal and harmonic framework which is common to most styles of Venda music. Styles are distinguished not only by the different social groups who perform them, and by the variety of accompanying instruments (Blacking 1965), but also by the predominant rhythmic pattern which almost immediately identifies them. Many ndayo are really exercises in musical and gymnastic coordination, and the response sections, whose meter usually coincides with the patterns of movement, are consequently more important and longer than the calls. This is a logical consequence of the fact that they are designed for group training at girls' initiation schools, and it distinguishes them from other styles of Venda music where brevity of response, uniformity of rhythm, and/or variety in the solo call are required.

The tempo of the ritual songs (1-14 of vhusha and T2, T3, T4 of tshikanda) is generally slower than that of most of the ndayo exercises. There are, in fact, only two broadly different tempi on which all the songs are based, and in each case the underlying quaver "pulse" remains the same whatever metrical pattern is used. Thus there is a basic grouping of twelve quavers, which is also used for the Venda national dance (tshikona) and the most important initiation school (domba): this may be divided into 4 dotted crotchets or 6 crotchets, and either meter may be used in performance, or both together, two against three.

In Figure 1 it will be seen that most songs are based on multiples of the pattern of 4 dotted crotchets and/or 6 crotchet beats, or on combinations and divisions of these units. Thus, what has been described by A. M. Jones and others as the "Standard Pattern" (No. 58) appears in a variety of guises (Nos. 11, 16, 18, 25, 32, 35, 37, 46, 47, 48, 49, T2 and T3), and for the Venda it is based on a sequence of 3 crotchets followed by 2 subdivided dotted crotchets.

Patterns of 24, 12, and 18 quavers are the most common, and are characteristic of Venda music. Songs T4 and T8 have the same slow rhythm as the ritual songs of vhusha and domba and are probably very old.

In performance the meter is not always established until the song is under way. If singers are using handclaps as an accompaniment, they usually begin at the first entry of the response. When drums are played, the tenor (thungwa) is responsible for the basic meter, which coincides with the appropriate dance steps or exercises. The alto drums (mirumba) play either in canon with the tenor or in 2/3 cross-rhythms; or they maintain a regular quaver "pulse" or simply reinforce the tenor beat. Sometimes performances of ndayo begin with the drum rhythms, and the novices sing only the chorus.

The entries of voice parts may coincide with the basic meter played on the tenor drum, or they may be in canon with it, following the alto drum. When cross-rhythms occur in a melody they generally coincide with tonal steps: see, for example, the melody of the words ndi mudzimu wau in Song 3. Some singers slur words and so produce variations of melodic rhythm, especially at the beginning of phrases. For example, in the same the phrase ndo endela khomba may be sunginstead of .

I have listed elsewhere some of the rules which apply to tempo, meter and rhythm in Venda music (see Rules of the Domba Song). I give here those which are relevant to the songs of vhusha and tshikanda, using the original numbering and adding new numbers.

2. Meter and rhythm vary considerably within different categories of music, but tempo remains more constant. There is a tempo characteristic of Venda music which is common to several categories.

2.0.1. The general aim of performance is to establish and maintain an almost metronomic tempo.

2.0.2. The basic tempo is expressed implicitly by accented performance or explicitly by a time-setter, such as the tenor drum.

2.0.4. A "pulse" group equivalent to 12 quavers is a fundamental unit in many songs.

2.0.5. The minimum repeated patterns of many songs are metrically based on multiples of the "pulse" group of 12 quavers, and less commonly of 8 quavers.

2.0.7. In the songs of vhusha and tshikanda, two basic tempi of between 252 and 300, and 304 and 396 quavers per minute are crystallised into groups of dotted crotchets, crotchets, or combinations of all three time values.

2.0.8. In the songs of vhusha and tshikanda, preferred multiples of the group of 12 quavers are 1, 2, 3/2. Multiples of groups of 8 quavers are 2 and 4. (Note: groups of 24 quavers are usually 8 x 3 and rarely 3 x 8).

2.1.0. Meter consists of the repetition of total patterns of movement (a drum beat is part of a total movement of the body).

2.1.1. The elaboration of patterns is the result of the addition of social elements (e.g., the combination of a tenor and alto drummer, each playing a self-contained pattern, can produce a more elaborate pattern).

2.1.2. If the social elements are different, the patterns must be combined polyrhythrnically (thus, two alto drummers may play in unison, but an alto and a tenor drummer may not).

2.1.3. If, however, a polyrhythmic pattern has been established, different social elements may combine musically, each following different parts of the total pattern (thus the feet of the dancers follow the tenor drum, whilst their voices follow the alto).

2.1.4. When vocal parts are added, the entry of both call and response may coincide with the basic meter.

2.1.5. The entry of both call and response may coincide with a counter-rhythm of the basic meter.

2.1.6. The entry of the response may coincide with the main beat, whilst that of the call coincides with a counter-rhythm.

2.2.0. New metrical patterns may be created by combining existing patterns in canon.

2.3.0. New metrical patterns may be created by combining or subdividing existing patterns in the ratio of 2:3. Variations in the rhythm of melodies are included in this rule.

2.4.0. New metrical patterns may be created by combining or subdividing existing patterns both in canon and in the ratio of 2:3.

2.5.0. Drums are assigned different musical roles according to the number used and the nature of the social event they accompany.

2.5.1. In all but "foreign" music the tenor and bass drums are played with a stick, and the alto with the hands.

2.5.2. The tenor drum is the "time-keeper," announcing the basic meter of the song.

2.5.4. One alto drum may reinforce the time-keeping of the tenor, either by playing with it or between its beats.

2.5.7. One or more alto drums may improvise a rhythm which stresses in groups of two or three quavers the underlying quaver pulse.

2.6.0. The entry of voices may create further rhythmic counterpoint.

2.6.1.The entry of both call and response may be in strict canon with the main beat.

2.6.2.The entry of the call may be in canon with the main beat, but the response coincides with it.